Shell evolution with just four fossil turtles

Turtles are charming animals yet, while they look cute to most people, they’ve been racking the brains of palaeontologists for decades. The combination of apparently primitive features and an extremely specialized anatomy, has made the reconstruction of the origin and evolution of these reptiles a nearly impossible task. In this entry we’ll try to get a general idea about the evolution of one of the most striking characteristics of turtles (the shell) with only four examples of primitive “turtles”.

CURRENT AND EXTINCT RELATIVES

As we explained in an earlier entry, the origin of turtles is still debated among the scientific community. Turtles show some anatomic characteristics not found among any current vertebrate, which makes their phylogenetic origin confusing. One of the characteristics that has puzzled palaeontologist more is their skull.

Skull of a loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) in which we can see the lack of temporal openings. Photo by David Stang.

While the rest of reptiles are diapsid (they present a pair of temporal openings at each side of the skull), turtles present a typically anapsid cranium (without any temporal openings). Yet, recent genomic studies have proved that it’s more likely that testudines (order Testudines, current turtles) descend from a diapsid ancestor and that through their evolution they reverted back to the primitive anapsid form. What is not so clear is if turtles are more closely related to lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes and tuataras) or to archosaurs (crocodiles and birds). The most accepted hypothesis is the second one.

Even if the origins of the testudines are still somewhat mysterious, most palaeontologists coincide in that they belong to the clade Pantestudines, which groups all those species more closely related to turtles than to any other animal. A group of reptiles that are also found inside the pantestudines are the sauropterygians like plesiosaurs and placodonts.

Reconstruction by Dmitry Bogdanov of the sauropterygian Plesiosaurus, a distant relative of turtles.

EVOLUTION OF TESTUDINES

The rest of pantestudines help us to form an image of how turtles acquired such a specialized anatomy. But first, take a look at some of the characteristics of turtles:

• A shell made up of two parts: the upper shell (carapace) which comes from the fusion of the vertebrae and the dorsal ribs and the lower shell (plastron) that originates from ventral ribs called “gastralia” (still present in some current reptiles).
• While the rest of vertebrates present the scapula over their ribs, the turtle’s ribs (their carapace) cover the scapula.
• The ability to hide their heads and limbs in their shells.
• The absence of teeth; having instead horny ridges in their jaws.

As we’ll see, these characteristics were acquired very gradually.

The carapace of a dead turtle, in which we can see how the ribs fuse with the vertebrae to form the shell. Photo by Fritz Flohr Reynolds.

Even if their relationship with turtles isn’t still very clear, Eunotosaurus africanus is the most ancient candidate to being a turtle’s relative. Eunotosaurus was a fossorial animal that lived 260 million years ago in South Africa. This animal had very wide dorsal ribs which contacted each other, which is thought to have served as an anchoring point for powerful leg muscles, used while digging. Also, similarly to current turtles, Eunotosaurus had lost the intercostal muscles and presented a reorganization of the respiratory musculature.

Fossil of Eunotosaurus, in which the characteristically wide ribs can be seen. Photo by Flowcomm.

The oldest indisputable relative of turtles is Pappochelys rosiane from Germany (240 million years ago). The name “Pappochelys” literally means “grandfather turtle” as, before the discovery of Eunotosaurus it was the oldest turtle relative. Just like Eunotosaurus, it presented wide dorsal ribs in contact with each other. Also, its ventral ribs were already wider and thicker and its scapular girdle was placed below the dorsal ribs.

Drawing by Rainer Schoch of the skeleton of Pappochelys in which we can see some of its characteristics. It is believed that Pappochelys was a semiaquatic animal that swam with the aid of its long tail.

The next step in the evolution of turtles is found 220 million years ago, during the late Triassic in China. Its name is Odontochely semitestacea, which means “toothed turtle with half a shell”. This name is due to the fact that, unlike true turtles, Odontochelys still had a mouth full of teeth and it only presented the lower half of the shell, the plastron. Even if it also had thick dorsal ribs, only paleontological proofs of the plastron have been found. Odontochelys was discovered in freshwater deposits, leads us to believe that at first it only developed the plastron to protect itself from predators attacking from below.

Reconstruction by Nobu Tamura of Odontochelys semitestacea. It’s not considered to be a true turtle due to the fact that it only had half a shell.

The first testudine known to possess a complete shell is Proganochelys quenstedti from the Triassic period, 210 million years ago. It already presented many characteristics found in current turtles: the shell was completely formed, with carapace and plastron, its skull was anapsid looking and it had no teeth. However, Proganochelys wasn’t able to retract its head and legs inside its shell (even if this may be because of the horns it had). It also presented two extra shell pieces at both sides, which probably served to protect its legs.

Reconstruction of Proganochelys from the Museum am Lowentor of Stuttgart. Photo by Ghedoghedo.

PRESENT DAY TURTLES

The order Testudines as we know it, appeared around 190 million years ago, during the Jurassic period. These current turtles are classified into two different suborders, which both separated quickly at the beginning of the evolution of testudines:

Suborder Pleurodira: This suborder is the smallest one as it only contains three current families, all native from the southern hemisphere. The main characteristic is the form in which they retract their neck laterally inside their shell, which leaves the neck exposed and makes the cervical vertebrae present a characteristic shape (Pleurodira roughly means “side neck”). Also, pleurodirans present 13 scutes in their plastrons.

Photo by Ian Sutton of an eastern long-necked turtle (Chelodina longicollis), a typical pleurodiran.

Suborder Cryptodira: Cryptodirans comprise most turtles. While pleurodirans only include freshwater species (as the testudines common ancestor is thought to be), criptodirans include freshwater terrapins, terrestrial tortoises and sea turtles. Apart from only presenting between 11 and 12 scutes in their plastrons, their principal characteristic is the ability to retract their neck and to hide their heads completely in their shell (Cryptodira roughly means “hidden neck”). Cryptodirans are found in practically all the continents and oceans (except in the coldest habitats).

Photo of an Alabama red-bellied turtle (Pseudemys alabamensis) by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In this photo we can see how cryptodirans hide their heads.

Even if there still are some questions to be answered about the evolution of turtles, we hope that with this little introduction to some of the most characteristic fossil “turtles”, you have had an overall view about how turtles got their shells. Whatever their origins are, we hope that the apparition of men isn’t what puts an end to the history of this group of slow but steady creatures.

REFERENCES

The following sources have been consulted during the elaboration of this entry:

• Bever, Lyson, Field & Bhullar (2015). Evolutionary origin of the turtle skull. Nature. Vol. 525. Pp: 239-242.
• Phenomena, National Geographic. How the turtle got its shell through skeletal shifts and muscular origami.
• Lyson, Bever, Scheyer, Hsiang & Gauthier (2013). Evolutionary Origin of the Turtle Shell. Current Biology. Vol. 23. Pp: 1113-1119.
• Lyson, Rubidge, Scheyer, Queiroz, Schchner, Smith, Botha-Brink & Bever (2016). Fossorial Origin of the Turtle Shell. Current Biology. Vol. 26. Pp: 1887-1894.
• The Atlantic. Why Turtles Evolved Shells: It Wasn’t for Protection.
• Schoch & Sues (2015). A Middle Triassic stem-turtle and the evolution of the turtle body plan. Nature. Vol. 523. Pp: 584-587.
• Reptile Evolution. Odontochelys.
• Cover photo by Daderot.

Why are sea turtles threatened?

Last week, we saw with detail how is the life of a sea turtle. Did you miss it? So, click here to read it! This week, I am still talking about his amazing animals, but I am focusing on the dangers that are threatening them, both natural or anthropic, and which actions we can do to save them. 

NATURAL THREATS 

Sea turtles are threaten by natural and anthropic dangers. Natural threats include egg loss due to the inundation or erosion of the beach, predation at all life stages, extreme temperatures and disease.

Egg loss

High tides and storms can produce the egg loss for several reasons: the drowning of the eggs, the beach erosion or accretion or nests are washed away. Moreover, there are some animals that feed on sea turtle eggs.

There are several reasons that explain the egg loss (Picture: PaddleAndPath).

Predation on turtles

Despite little turtles usually leave the nest at night, the risk of being eaten by a predator is not zero, since they are part of the diet of raccoons, birds, crabs, sharks and other fishes. Young and adult turtles are also feed by some animals, like sharks and other big fishes, but the impact is not as big as in the first stages. Read the post of the last week if you want to know how many turtles die of old age for each 10.000 eggs. The number will shock you!

Crabs eat the hatching turtles (Picture: Gnaraloo Turtle Conservation Program, Creative Commons).

Hypothermia

Below 8º to 10ºC, turtles become lethargic and buoyant until they float at the surface (this condition is known as cold-stunning). At temperatures below 5º to 6ºC death rate can be important.

Diseases

Parasitic infections are common in sea turtles. Up to 30% of the loggerhead sea turtles in the Atlantic ocean have trematodes that infect their cardiovascular system. These infections, at the same time, reduce their immunological defences and then may be infected by bacteria (like Salmonella or E. coli).  Dinoflagellate blooms are also a threat for them because of the poisonous content produce health problems.

ANTHROPIC THREATS

Four are the main anthropic threats for marine turtles: egg and turtle poaching, destruction of nesting beaches, pollution and fisheries by-catch. Here, we will see some more.

Poaching

Fortunately, poaching is not present all over the world, but it can be specially important in some countries. Turtles are hunted for their meat and cartilage or for their shells (used in jewellery and like a decoration). Egg collection is also present.

Sea turtles confiscated by Philippine Police (Picture: Mongabay).

Sale of sea turtle eggs (Picture: OceanCare).

Destruction of nesting beaches

The building of infrastructures to protect ocean front property produce that females cannot access to nesting beaches and, moreover, produce their erosion. Beach nourishment to fight against beach erosion also affect them because the new beach buries the nests, offshore dredging kills them, beaches may become too compacted for nesting and steep and sand can have different properties (what may reduce, for example, gas diffusion). Tourism also affect them.

Pollution and garbage

It is not completely known if the pollutants, such as fertilizers and pesticides, have a direct impact on sea turtles, but among indirect effects there are the habitat degradation, considering that excess nutrients increase harmful algal blooms.

Garbage is also a problem. Turtles with plastic in the stomach have been found because they confuse plastic bags with jellyfishes, what block intestines and produce their death. Not only are plastics ingested, but also do they become entangled in debris like nets, fishing line or other plastic items. This produces a growth deformation.

The ingestion of plastic blocks their intestines and produce death (Picture: Fethiyetimes).

Fishing by-catch

Sea turtles are also threaten by fishing by-catch.

Drift fishing, although is forbidden in Spain, are still used and every year, each boat produce the death of a hundred animals.

The longline fishing has an important impact. In Spanish waters, every year, are captured between 15,000 and 20,000 individuals. Despite they return alive to the ocean, they have a hook in the mouth and produce post release death for the wounds. Here you can read a review of the methods to reduce by-catch on loggerhead sea turtle in longline fishing. 

Longline fishing captures between 15,000 and 20,000 individuals in Spanish waters each year (Picture: Phys).

Mortality in trawling depends on trawl times: mortality increased from 0% with times less than 50 minutes to 70% after 90 minutes. This is explained by the breathing capacity of the animals.

Global change

Ocean acidification due to the continued release of carbon dioxide may have an important impact on sea turtle populations because the quality of the food will probably reduce.  The sea level rise will have a negative impact on sea turtles because endanger the existence of beaches. Moreover, the increase in the temperatures will affect the growth and the sex ratio, since sex depends on the temperature in reptiles: below 29ºC prevail males and above, females.

HOW CAN WE HELP THEM?

• Avoid any activity or behaviour that can annoy sea turtles. In the case of feeling annoyed, you will observe that they try to leave the area, they do a fast diving and they do abrupt swimming movements.
• Reduce the speed of the ship if you see any element that could be a sea turtle. In the case of being a turtle, avoid any manoeuvre that can endanger them.
• Pick up fishing gear or garbage present in the water.
• In the case of the animal being in danger, first, call the emergency phone of your country. In the case of Spain, call 112. However, there are some actions that you can do while vets arrive:
  • Turtle with a broken shell or open injuries: cover the injuries with a wet rag with iodine (never in the eyes, ears and nose).
  • Drowned turtle: maintain the animal for 5 minutes with the ventral part face up and with the body inclined (head downwards), moving its fins.
  • Turtle with plastics in the mouth: remove the plastic taking care and call the emergency number.
  • Dead turtle: don’t touch the animal and call emergencies.
  • Hooked turtle: don’t stretch the hook and cut the line with 30 cm.
• Inform the proper authority of the location of possible nests. Some clues:
  • Tracks of turtles in the sand of the beach, with a shape of a V, with the nest in the vertex.
  • Depression in the sand, what indicates about the eclosion of eggs.
  • Observation of a turtle doing the lay.
  • Remainder of eggs or hatching animals.

REFERENCES 

• Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía (2014). Varamientos de Especies Marinas Amenazadas. Guías prácticas voluntariado ambiental.
• Gray, J (1997). Marine biodiversity: patterns, threats and conservation needs. Biodiversity and Conservation 6, 153-175
• Hamann, M et al. ‘Climate Change And Marine Turtles’. The Biology Of Sea Turtles. Volume III. Jeanette Wyneken, Kenneth J. Lohmann and John A. Musick. 1st ed. New York: CRC Press, 2013. 353-378. Print.
• Harrould-Kolieb, E. & Savitz, J. (2009). Acidificación: ¿Cómo afecta el CO2 a los océanos? Oceana
• Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. Guía de buenas prácticas en las Zonas Especiales de Conservación de ámbito marino de Canarias. España. http://www.magrama.gob.es/es/costas/temas/proteccion-medio-marino/201311_guia_bbpp_web_tcm7-229984.pdf
• Oceana (2006). Las tortugas marinas en el Mediterráneo. Amenazas y soluciones para la supervivencia. 38 pp.
• Otero, M., Garrabou, J., Vargas, M. 2013. Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas and climate change: A guide to regional monitoring and adaptation opportunities. Malaga, Spain: IUCN. 52 pages.
• Shigenaka, G (2010). Oil and Sea Turtles. Biology, planning and response. NOAA
• Smith, T & Smith R (2007). Ecología. Pearson Educación (6 ed.)
• Velegrakis, A., Hasiotis, T., Monioudi, I., Manoutsoglou, E., Psarros, F., Andreadis, O. and Tziourrou, P., (2013). Evaluation of climate change impacts on the sea-turtle nesting beaches of the National Marine Park of Zakynthos Protected Area. Med-PAN North Project, Final report, 81 pp.

How is the life of a marine turtle?

I have talked about marine turtles in some past posts. In concrete, about the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). In the following weeks, I am going to talk more about this amazing marine animals. In particular, this week I will explain how is the life of a marine turtle, especially about the loggerhead sea turtle, and in the next one, I am talking about which are the threats that endanger these animals and about what we can do to save them. 

INTRODUCTION

Loggerhead sea turtle is one of the seven sea turtles on Earth. It has a worldwide distribution, being the most abundant species in the Mediterranean, and it can be identified by the presence of a carapace that measures between 80 and 100 cm long with 5 lateral scutes, so that the first of them is in contact with the nuchal scute. It is endangered according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature). The loggerhead sea turtle feeds on jelly plankton like jellyfishes during the oceanic stage, but feeds on fishes and squids in the neritic stage. Additionally, they can consume salt water due to the presence of salt glands placed in the cranium. Like other sea turtles, it cannot hide its head and fins inside the carapace.

Identification key for a loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) (Picture from MarineBio).

HOW IS THE LIFE OF A MARINE TURTLE?

In marine turtles, the reproductive cycles are circadian, it is that it happens regularly over the time. The periodicity depends on each species, but in the case of the loggerhead sea turtle usually is biannual, so it takes place every two years (but sometimes every three years). Anyway, this cycle is not strict because it is dependant on some factors like food availability or illnesses.

The gregarious behaviour of many species is explained for the ability to recognise the individuals of the same species. In order to recognise each other, most of the species use smell, but they can use sight and sound. During the mating, when the female accept the male, the male bites the female in the neck and in the anterior fins. The male put itself on the female and catches her with the nails of the anterior fins (in the case of the loggerhead, it has two nails per fin). Mating takes place in the sea and usually in the first hours of the day. Moreover, a female can be impregnated by several males.

Mating of a loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) (Picture: OceanWide Images).

The moment when the marine turtles lay the eggs depend on the moon phases, tides, temperature and wind, but it usually happens during summer in sandy beaches. Females return to the beaches where they were born, coming from feeding grounds. They navigate using marine currents, temperature changes, magnetic signals and the sound and smell of the beach.

Depending on the features of the beach, this will be more or less suitable for each marine turtle species. The loggerhead prefers open and shallow beaches and bays, continental or insular, with a slope between 5-10º and with a calm swell. Moreover, these beaches have to be protected by bushes in the terrestrial part and by coral or rockery reefs in the marine part. They usually lay on the first terrace of the beach, in zones without plants and in the first attempt. All the sea turtles have in common the fact that the lay is done beyond the highest tide.

When the female finds the place, with the anterior fins do a cavity where to place its body (called bed) and next, with the posterior fins, dig out the nest and place the eggs. During the period from which the female leave the water and dig out the nest, the animal is very sensitive to bother and can stop doing the nest and come back to water. 

Sea turtles do several lays per year. In the case of loggerheads, they usually do between 2 and 4 lays per year, with 100 eggs that weights 40 grammes (this is 4 kilos per lay). Despite of this, we have to have in consideration that the number of eggs produced for a female is limited by the capacity of storage of the female, which is related with the size. Between each lay in the same reproductive cycle, the mating is not necessary because they can store sperm.

Turtle laying the eggs in a beach (Picture: Brandon Cole).

Eggs are incubated during 50-60 days under the sand of the beach (in the loggerhead). The hatching is synchronized and when the small turtles reach the surface in few minutes are oriented thanks to the beach slope, the sound of the waves and the light of the moon on the sea.

Loggerhead sea turtle baby (Caretta caretta) (Picture: Rewilding Europe).

During the first days of life, turtles present a high buoyancy. In the first weeks, small turtles remain in marine currents and gyres, where food is abundant, so they have a pelagic life. If they are male, the most probable is that they will never touch the land. 

When they are born, the carapace is soft  and, for this reason, the number of individuals that will survive is just a 10% of which leave the egg due to the predators, like crabs, sharks and seagulls. During the first year only survives 10-30% of the animals. Year after year, the mortality rate decreases for the increase of size and the hardening of the carapace. A study has found that just 10 out of every 10.000 eggs will become adults and just one will die for age.

Adult of a loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) (Picture: Deviant Art).

Sea turtles do long-distance migrations, specially in the young stage. When they abandon the beach where they were born, during the next 10 years, they will be travelling long distances. The migrations are between feeding and reproductive grounds.

Then, the cycle restarts with the newborns.

REFERENCES

• Cardona L, Álvarez de Quevedo I, Borrell A, Aguilar A (2012). Massive Consumption of Gelatinous Plankton by Mediterranean Apex Predators. PLoS ONE 7(3): e31329. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031329
• Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía (2014). Varamientos de Especies Marinas Amenazadas. Guías prácticas voluntariado ambiental.
• CRAM: Caretta caretta
• Dodd, C. Kenneth, Jr. 1988. Synopsis of the biological data on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle Caretta caretta (Linnaeus 1758). U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Biol. Rep. 88(14). 110 pp.
• IUCN: Caretta caretta 
• Márquez, R (1996). Las tortugas marinas y nuestro tiempo. México: IEPSA
• Smith, T & Smith R (2007). Ecología. Pearson Educación (6 ed.)

How can we save marine turtles from longline fishing?

This week, in this article we discuss how can we save marine turtles from longline fishing, since many species of marine turtles are endangered due to accidental captures. 

INTRODUCTION

Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) and leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) are the marine turtles most captured with superficial longline fishing (Gilman et al. 2006), but are also captured the other species (Polovina et al. 2003).  Despite accidental captures of this species are strange, the worldwide whole has an important effect (Lewison et al. 2004). Here, we are focusing in the measure to reduce these accidental captures in the loggerhead sea turtle for the huge available bibliography.

Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) (Picture from DeviantArt).

THE LONGLINE FISHING

Longline fishing is a type of fishing that consists on a main line from which puts up hooks with bait. It’s one of the most ancient fishing systems that are known. The main line can measure between some hundreds of meters to 50-60 km, with a distance between hooks from 1 meter to 50 m. Despite of being considered the most selection fishing, because depending on the bait and the hook size it is possible to catch one type of fish or another, it is not free from accidental captures, among which we can find sea birds and marine turtles.

Longline fishing, despite of being very selection, captures marine turtles (Picture from Sea Turtle Conservancy).

HOW CAN WE SAVE MARINE TURTLES FROM LONGLINE FISHING?

Reduction of the fishing time

If fishers reduced the time in which the longline is in the water, it would be reduced the accidental captures of loggerhead sea turtle, but this doesn’t happen with leatherback sea turtle (Watson et al. 2005). The problem is that is not economically possible for the reduction in the goal species captures.

Change of the hook

Changes in the hooks are the most effective. Wider hooks reduce turtle’s captures and the proportion of the animals that swallows the hook without compromising the commercial viability the swordfish in the North Atlantic (Gilman et al. 2006), but these doesn’t happen in other fisheries. The shape determines the place where the hook gets hooked: while circular hooks gets hooked in the mandible or in the mouth, J hooks gets hooked internally. The change to a circular hook reduces the captures and the mortality after the freeing (post-release death) in the loggerhead sea turtle because they usually are captured with they bite the bait and this get hooked more externally and it is easier to free them (Gilman et al. 2006; Bolten & Bjorndal 2005; Watson et al. 2003). The change in the shape is effective in certain fisheries and areas, like for example in the swordfish (maintaining the captures (Piovano et al. 2009)) an the blue shark in Azores (Bolten & Bjorndal 2005). For this reason, circular hooks don’t reduce the captures of goal species and suppose a low-cost investment, but complicate their removal and they usually are more breakable than J hooks (Gilman et al. 2006). In conclusion, the use of circular hooks in the swordfish fishery in the Mediterranean and the Northwest Atlantic can suppose an easy and cheap technique to reduce marine turtle captures (Piovano et al. 2009; Watson et al. 2005; Gilman et al. 2006, 2007). The direct mortality produced for the hooks is reduced, so the 80% of the freed turtles are alive, but the post-release death depends on the position of the hook (Camiñas & Valeiras, 2001).

Hook types. (A) Circular hook and (B) J hook(Picture from Cicmar).

Change of the bait 

Bait is another important factor. When the bait is fish, the captures of loggerhead turtles are reduced compared to the use of squid, and the captures of swordfish become bigger (Watson et al. 2005). The reason is that they feed on fish doing small bites and this prevent from being swallowed, while squid is more resistant and they swallow the bait completely (Watson et al. 2003, 2004). In the Mediterranean and Northwest Atlantic, using mackerel maintains the swordfish’s captures and reduces the captures of loggerhead sea turtles (Alessandro & Antonello 2010; Watson et al. 2005; Gilman et al. 2006, 2007), but reduces the captures of the Atlantic bluefin tuna (Rueda et al. 2006; Rueda & Sagaraminaga 2008). Using baits with different colours don’t seem to be a good measure because don’t prevent from capturing them (Swimmer et al. 2005; Watson et al. 2002).

Change of the depth of fishing and the distance to the coast 

Loggerhead sea turtles usually dive over the 40 m deep, maximum until 100 m (Polovina et al. 2003). For this reason, if the longline was placed under the depth of more abundance, the captures would be reduced (Rueda & Sagarminaga 2008). The problem is that the goal species captures would be reduced too depending on the fishery (Gilman et al. 2006) and, moreover, if they got hooked, they wouldn’t be able to breath in the surface and they would die. According to fishers, the hooks closer to the buoys capture more turtles because they are in swallower depths (Watson et al. 2002). So, these secondary lines should be longer. The turtle captures also depend on the distance to the coast (Báez et al. 2007), and the longline should be place further than 35 nautical miles and the captures of swordfish captures don’t be affected (Alessandro & Antonello 2010).

Elimination of light sticks 

Light sticks should be banned because increase their capture (Alessandro & Antonello 2010).

Change of the fishing areas 

Marine turtles gather in areas, so one capture increases a lot the probability of capturing more. For this reason, a good measure should be the communication between ships and the shift in the areas (100 km away) during a period of time (for example, one week) (Gilman et al. 2007). This would be very effective, but suppose an extra gas expense and the reduction of the time that fishers are fishing due to the journeys. Another measure could be the permanent or seasonal closure of areas, but this is economically infeasible.

Sea temperature monitoring

The capture rate of loggerhead sea turtles increases when the temperature is over 22ºC, while the capture of swordfish increases under 20ºC. For this reason, it should be better to fish in waters under 20ºC (Watson et al. 2005). However, in this case the fishing pressure on the swordfish should be controlled.

Fisher observers 

A good manage tool is the presence of observers on board a ship, like in the longline swordfish fleet in Hawaii (Gilman et al. 2007). Fisher observers record the number of fishing devices, the fishing days, the fishing position and the number of captured turtles (Álvarez de Quevedo et al. 2010).

A good manage tool is the presence of observers on board a ship (Picture from Journal of Applied Ecology).

HOW DO TURTLES HAVE TO BE FREED?

Turtles have to be freed using the right device to remove the hook and, in the case that it is not possible, the line has to be cut as closer to the hook as possible because this reduces the mortality because the line can affect the intestines (Casale et al. 2007).

To free the turtles, the line has to be cut as closer to the hook as possible (Picture from Greenpeace).

CONCLUSION

The effectiveness and the commercial viability of the strategies to avoid the capture of loggerhead turtles depend on the fishery, the size of the animal, the goal species and other differences between fleets (Gilman et al. 2006, 2007). The combination of circular hooks and fish like a bait is very effective in reducing the captures of turtles without affecting the goal species. This changes, together with tools to remove the hooks and the lines, reduce the accidental captures and the post-release deaths.

REFERENCES

• Alessandro L,  Antonello S (2010) An overview of loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) bycatch and technical mitigation measures in Mediterranean Sea. Rev. Fish Biol. Fisheries 20: 141-161
• Álvarez de Quevedo I, Cardona L, De Haro A, Pubill E, Aguilar A (2010) Sources of bycatch of loggerhead sea turtles in the western Mediterranean other than drifting longlines. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 67: 000-000
• Báez JC, Real R, García-Soto C, De la Serna JM, Macías D, Camiñas JA (2007) Loggerhead sea turtle bycatch depends on distance to the coast, independent of fishing effort: implications for conservation and fisheries management. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 338:249–256
• Bolten A, Bjorndal K (2005) Experiment to evaluate gear modification on rates of sea turtle bycatch in the swordfish longline fishery in the Azores – Phase 4. Final Project Report submitted to the National Marine Fisheries Service. Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.
• Camiñas JA, Valeiras J (2001) Marine turtles, mammals and sea birds captured incidentally by the Spanish surface longline fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea. Rapp Comm Int Mer Medit 36:248
• Casale P, Freggi D, Rocco M (2007) Mortality induced by drifting longline hooks and branchlines in loggerhead sea turtles, estimated through observation in captivity. Aquatic Conserv: Mar Freshw Ecosyst doi: 10.1002/acq. 894
• Gilman E, Kobayashi D, Swenarton T, Brothers N, Dalzell P, Kinan-Kelly I (2007) Reducing sea turtle interactions in the Hawaii-based longline swordfish fishery. Biol Cons 139:19–28
• Gilman E, Zollet E, Beverly S, Nakano H, Davis K, Shiode D, Dalzell P, Kinan I (2006) Reducing sea turtle bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries. Fish Fish 7:2–23
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