How animals see the world?

Have you ever heard that dogs see in black and white? Or that cats can see in the dark? Why we have our eyes in front of the face? And why goats have an horizontal pupil? This article will answer these and other questions about the eyes and vision, focusing on mammals.

HOW IMAGES ARE FORMED?

The eyes are the receptors responsible for capturing light and sending the signal through the optic nerve to the brain, which make the interpretation. Light is an electromagnetic wave as infrared, ultraviolet, X rays, microwaves, etc. In this post we will refer to visible light, that is, the part of the spectrum that can perceive humans and most mammals.

Parts of the eye. Source

Basically, the light passes through the pupil. It can regulate the amount of light thanks to the muscles associated with iris (which gives color to the eye). The lens focuses the objects. The image is projected inverted in the retina, to be sent as an electrical signal to the brain.

WHY DO WE SEE IN COLOR ?

In the retina there are two main types of photoreceptor cells: cons and rods. The main differences are:

RODS

• More sensitive in a few light conditions
• No color vision
• Motion-sensitive
• Less image detail

CONES

• Activated under conditions of high light
• Color vision
• Contrast-sensitive
• High image detail

That’s why in low light, vertebrates see in black and white and the image is not clear, since the rods are activated at maximum but the cones are inactive. Some primates have three different kinds of cones (trichromatic vision), which correspond to the red, green and blue colour (RGB). Some primates and other animals have monochromatic vision (they only have one type of cone) or dichromatic (two). Some animals have tetrachromic vision, like birds.

The cones are sensitive to different wavelengths, different colors. Photo taken from Colombian Primatological Association

Generalizing a lot, diurnal vertebrates have more cones than rods and nocturnal ones have more rods than cones, allowing them to see better in the dark. But they can really see in the dark?

SEEING IN THE DARK

In total absence of light it is impossible to see, although some animals can detect other radiation such as infrared (snakes) or ultraviolet (bees). In addition to the relation between rods and cones, other factors that improve vision in low light conditions are:

THE CORNEA

The bigger the eye and the cornea, the better use of light. The mammal with the greatest cornea in relation to the eye is the Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta ) a nightlife primate.

Philippines’ tarsier (photo: Yeo Kok Leng)

THE PUPIL

Another way to take advantadge of few light conditions is increasing the size of the pupil. According to the shape of it, the control of incoming light is more precise: it is the case of many cats. Compared with a round pupil, the elongated one opens and closes sideways and according to the position of the eyelid, pupil surface exposed to light can be controlled better.

The felines with vertical pupil can open it horizontally and control better the entry light than with a circular pupil. Image of an unknown author, adapted from Aquàrium-Liège Museum

 

THE TAPETUM LUCIDUM

Cats, dogs, bats, horses, whales, crocodiles, cattle and some nocturnal primates have in the retina or behind it a bright layer called tapetum lucidum, which increases up to 6 times the light gathering ability compared to humans. As if it were a mirror, the tapetum lucidum reflects the light reaching the eye to return back to the retina and harness light to the maximum.

Reflection of light due to the tapetum lucidum. Image taken from Exclusively cats

The tapetum lucidum is responsible for cat’s eyes appearing to glow in the dark and cat and dog’s pupils shine in blue/green when light falls upon the eye.

Tapetum lucidum shining on a dog. Photo Mireia Querol

WHY SOME ANIMALS HAVE THE EYES IN FRONT OF THE FACE WHILE OTHERS HAVE THEM ON THE SIDES ?

The position of the eye in mammals can be frontal, like a cat, or in the side, like a rabbit. This means distinct advantages:

• Binocular vision (stereoscopic): allows a good estimation of distance, but the field of view is smaller. A 3D image is generated. It is typical of carnivores that should focus attention to their prey or primates that should calculate the distance between the branches.
  
• Side vision (peripheral): allows each eye to send a different signals to the brain, so it is easier to notice their surroundings having a field of view of about 360 degrees. It is typical of herbivores, which must pay attention to the presence of potential predators .

  

  Visual field of a cat and a horse. The blind area is smaller in hervibores. Source: Sjaastad, Sand and O. Hove K. Photo taken from Eye Opener

WHY GOATS HAVE AN HORIZONTAL PUPIL?

In addition to the position of the eyes, the shape of the pupil is also related if you are a predator or a prey. Goats or horses have horizontal pupils, while cats like the margay have it vertical.

Pupil of a goat (horizontal) and a cat (vertical) Photo: Wikimedia Commons

Banks  says that “to calculate distances predators basis on stereoscopic vision (works better with a small pupil) and sharpness (works best with a larger one). Vertical pupils are small horizontally and large vertically”.

In the case of terrestrial prey attacked by predators, the tendency of the pupil is being horizontally because “can gather more light and and also reduces the sunlight, which could dazzle “. Exceptions such as rabbits or mice with a circular pupil, are because they have to pay attention also to the sky, from where a bird of prey can attack.

WHAT IS THE THIRD EYELID?

Some animals have the nictitating membrane (“third eyelid”), a transparent or translucent membrane that is used to protect and moisten the eye without losing visibility. Camels, seals and polar bears have it complete, whereas in other mammals, such as dogs or humans remains only reduced.

Nictitating membrane in a feline. Photo by Editor B

IS IT TRUE THAT DOGS AND BULLS SEE IN BLACK AND WHITE ?

Actually dogs and cats are able to detect colors, particularly gray, yellow and blue in softer tones. Cats may be able to perceive more colours.

Visible spectrum by a dog and a human. Source

In the case of bulls, it is also spread the myth that rage against the red colour or see in black and white. Actually bulls have dichromatic vision, like most diurnal mammals, since they only have blue and green cones. Therefore, they can’t see red, but it does not mean they see in black and white.

AND OTHER MAMMALS?

Horses see in blue and red tones. Most rodents see in black and white. Most species of the family of goats, sheeps and bulls see from green to violet. In addition, recent studies indicate that many mammals (especially nocturnal ones), contrary to what was believed, also can perceive ultraviolet radiation: rats and mice, reindeer, possibly cats and dogs, cows, pigs, ferrets, okapi…

We finish with a BuzzFeed video with the simulation of vision of some animals. If you have more questions about animal’s vision leave it in the comments!

REFERENCES

• Partes del ojo
• Aprovechar la noche: se descubre el misterio de la visión nocturna de mamíferos
• Por qué los felinos tienen las pupilas rasgadas
• La guerra entre las pupilas verticales y horizontales
• Comparative morphology of the tapetum lucidum. American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists. Veterinary Ophthalmology (2004) 7, 1, 11–22.
• La visión en primates: No todos vemos el mundo del mismo color
• Muchos mamíferos ven radiaciones ultravioletas
• Revista electrónica de veterinaria
• Cover image: unknown author

The thylacine: we extinguished it

Today marks 79 years of the death of the last known thylacine, Benjamin, at the zoo in Hobart (Tasmania). The thylacine, Tasmanian wolf or Tasmanian tiger is one of the classic examples of extinct animals by humans. Its fame is due to its relatively recent extinction, its strange anatomy and the existence of videos of the last thylacine, which transmits certain uneasiness to know that no longer exists. Do you want to know their characteristics, the causes of their disappearance and their cloning project?

THE THYLACINE, A MARSUPIAL

Despite its many names, the thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus*) was not related to wolves or tigers (placental mammals), as it was a marsupial animal. Marsupials are a mammals’ infraorder in which the young is born at a very early stage of development, almost in embryonic state. The best known representatives are kangaroos, koalas, wallabies, possums and bandicoots.

One of the few preserved thylacine taxidermy in the world. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid. Photo: Mireia Querol

After a very short gestation, newborn moves to one of the mother‘s nipples where is seized several months. In most marsupials, nipples, -and therefore the newborn- are protected by a pouch. When the brood completes its development, it will release the nipple and leave the pouch to explore the outside. Look in the following video the birth and migration of the embryo of a red kangaroo:

DESCRIPTION

The thylacine was native of Australia and Papua New Guinea, but in the seventeenth century (arrival of European settlers Oceania) was found only in Tasmania.

Old thylacine distribution. Map by Discover Life

It was an animal with physical traits of wolf, tiger and kangaroo due to convergent evolution, which made him a unique case and an enigma to science before their taxonomy was known. Its closest relative is the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii).

He looked like a big dog with a thick, stiff tail. Its weight was about 30 kg on average. The fur was short, gray-brown with 13-20 vertical black stripes at the rear. It is estimated that lived between 5 and 7 years in the wild.

Display of taxidermy thylacines. Photo: South Australian Museum

It was capable of bipedal jumps and upright posture for short periods of time. They were also good swimmers. The anatomy of the thylacine when stood up, with its tail resting on the ground, reminds the kangaroo as evidenced by the following filming of 1933:

FEEDING

The thylacine was exclusively carnivorous, feeding on kangaroos, emus, wallabies and wombats. It was a solitary and crepuscular hunter who caught their prey by ambushes, as it was not very fast. It could turn the palm of the leg up like cats do. This increased movement of the leg would have allowed them subdue prey more easily after a surprise attack. In contrast, animals with reduced mobility in the leg, as some canines, prefer the persecution of the ambush and often hunt in herds.

Benjamin gasping similarly to yawning in response to a threat. Hobart Zoo. Photo by David Fleay.

Another unique feature was the ability it had to open its mouth. Equipped with 46 teeth, its powerful jaws could be opened at an angle of 120 degrees, allowing him to swallow large chunks of meat.

The thylacine’s impressive buccal capacity. Photo: video capture by David Fleay

Look in the following video the last moving record of Benjamin (1933), from which was obtained the above screenshot:

To view the 7 videos that remain from this fantastic animal, enter The Thylacine videos.

REPRODUCTION

Thylacines could reproduce from June to December. It were born 2-4 pups per litter, who spent three months in the pouch but were still dependent on its mother‘s milk more than nine months. Unlike many marsupials, in the thylacine pouch opened to the rear of the body.

Only existing photographs of females with brood in the pouch. Photo taken from The Thylacine Museum

EXTINCTION

Australian Aborigines already knew and hunted the thylacine, as seen in their 1000 b.C art. The first possible thylacine footprints discovered by Europeans are from 1642, although it was not until 1808 that a detailed description of the species was made.

Thylacine hunted in 1869. Photo of public domain

There are several hypotheses that point to the extinction of the Tasmanian tiger, in the majority, humans are the main blamable. Like it happens nowadays in Spain, the Tasmanian wolf was quickly accused of killing cattle and hen, so despondent rewards were offered for the animal and was the subject of an intensive hunt. Later research has concluded that its jaw was not strong enough to kill an adult sheep.

Only existing picture of a thylacine with a prey. Later research suggest that is a farce with a taxidermy specimen to give them bad reputation. Photo by H. Burrell (1921)

With the colonization of Australia, the habitat and prey of the thylacine were diminished drastically. They were also victims of introduced species on the continent by humans, such as dogs, foxes and dingoes (wolf subspecies). It is also probably that suffered some diseases that lead them to death.

Last wild thylacine hunted by Wilfred Batty (1930). Photo: unknown (Wikimedia Commons)

In 1920 the thylacine was already on the verge of extinction. In 1930, it was hunted by a farmer the last known wild specimen and in 1933 arrived at Hobart Zoo the nicknamed Benjamin. In 1936, he was forgotten outside his cage and did not survive the freezing temperatures at night. 59 days before, it had been approved officially the protection of the species.

Only 128 years after his “discovery” the last thylacine died. Photo by David Fleay colored by Neitshade

After the 50 years required by the scientific community without any sightings or evidence of its existence, the thylacine was officially declared extinct by IUCN in 1986. Many claim to have seen the thylacine and even filmed one in the wild, but there are no no definitive evidence.

CURRENT RESEARCH

The International Thylacine Specimen Database is an international database that compiles all existing records of the Tasmanian wolf (museum specimens, bones, photos, videos…). Since 1999, there have been attempts to bring the thylacine back to life by cloning techniques, which have been unsuccessful. In 2008, Australian scientists were able to extract DNA from specimens preserved in alcohol and activate a gene implanting it in a mouse embryo and in 2009 the complete sequencing of mitochondrial DNA was published. The elusive goal is to activate the complete genome of thylacine, to have a real possibility of cloning. But if that happens, what are the ethical, economic and scientific implications of the reappearance of an extinct species? The debate is still open.

*Thylacinus cynocephalus from greek θύλακος (thylakos, “pouch”) and κυνοκἐφαλος (kinokefalos, “dog-headed”).

REFERENCES

• Animal. Clutton-Brock, Juliet et al.  2002. Animal. Pearson Educación
• ¿Qué era en realidad el tilacino?
• The thylacine museum
• El último tilacino
• El misterio del último lobo marsupial
• Tasmanian tiger’s jaws were too weak to kill sheep
• Extinct Tasmanian tiger could roar back into life after DNA is implanted into a mouse
• Resurrection of DNA Function In Vivo from an Extinct Genome
• Imagen de portada por Robb Kendrick

Homosexuality is so animal

Fortunately for LGTB collective, greater and greater countries and societies understood that homosexuality is something natural and that it is not an illness. Anyway, despite this is true, it is also true that it is necessary to work hard to achieve equality on lesbian, gay, transexual and bisexual rights and to eradicate the false belief that homosexuality is unnatural. In the next weeks, in cities all over the world like Barcelona and Madrid will take place LGTB Pride parties. For this reason, this article hope to show clear examples that homosexuality is not exclusive of human, but present in many animals. So, there is no reason to continue believing in the argument that homosexuality is unnatural! 

IF YOU ARE NEW HERE, YOU CAN FOLLOW US ON FACEBOOK AND TWITTER! 

INTRODUCTION

Homosexuality is a fact present in many animal species. In fact, it has been documented in 1,500 of the more than 1 million described animal species (Bagemihl, 1999). Without going any further, a study of the California University demonstrated that in all the analysed species there were some individuals with homosexual traits or behaviours, including worms, flies, birds, dolphins and chimpanzees, among others.

In the animal kingdom, the concept “homosexuality” refers to any sexual behaviour between same sex animals, like copulation, flirt, mating, genital stimulation and young breeding. In the case of humans, it is more complex than this because there is much more factors and feelings are involved in this.

From the biological point of view, it is supposed that the goal of any species is its perpetuation. So, which is the function of homosexuality? There are many theories about it and they are not particular because for each species there is one explanation or another. Let’s explain three of them! Marelen Zuk, professor in biology at the University of California, propose that not producing their own offspring, homosexuals could help to breed and take care of their relatives, what also contributes to genetic pool. According to the biologist and phsycologist Janet Mann from the Georgetown University, it is a way of creating links and alliances between individuals. Finally, in the case of fruit fly and other insects, the evolutionary biologist Nathan Bailey suggest that the reason of their homosexuality is the lack of the gene that let them to distinguish between both sex. There is also the possibility that homosexuality doesn’t have any function. At any rate, homosexual behaviour may have evolutionary consequences, but it is still being studied.

PINGUINS

On February 2004, New York Times published that Roy and Silo, two male chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) from the Central Park Zoo, coiled their necks, vocalized one to other and had sex. When they were exposed to females, they rejected them. Moreover, zookeepers gave them a fertile egg in order they incubate them and when the little penguin was born they feed her until she was able to live by herself. This is not an isolated case because it have happened more in this and other zoos, like in Bremerhaven Zoo (Germany), Faunia (Spain) and Dingle Ocean World (Ireland).

But this is not exclusive of captive animals. A research done on Adélie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) found homosexual behaviours in some of their young individuals. Another research was carried on king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus), in which it was observed that 28.3% of males flirted with other males. The reason in this case seems to be an excess of males or high testosterone levels. Anyway, it was found two partners (male-male and female-female) in which one knew the vocalization of the other.

Penguins are a good example of birds with homosexual behaviours (Picture from Listverse).

BONOBOS

The bonobo (Pan paniscus), apes very close to humans, are a good example of homosexual behaviours. They are so sexual. It has been observed that, in captivity or free, half of their sexual relationships are with same sex animals. In addition, females have sex with other females almost every hour. The main function of this is to strengthen links between animals. In the case of males, in order to reduce the stress after a fight, a penis fight takes place, that consists on rubbing their genitals together.

In bonobos, same sex relationships may be done to strengthen social links (Picture from BBC).

KILLER WHALES

Homosexual interactions between male killer whales (Orcinus orca) are an important part of their social life. When resident groups join together during summer and autumn to feed, males show flirting, affectionate and sexual behaviours between them. Normally, interactions take place one to one and lasts for an hour, but it can be longer. In this interactions, they caress, chase and carefully push one to the other. Another amazing behaviour is the beak – genital orientation, but it also take place between males and females. Just under the water surface, one male swims in an upside down position, touching the genital zone of the beak. Then, they dive together in a double helix spiral. This happens several times, but they interchange their positions. It is not strange to see them with the erected penis during this interaction. Despite it happens in all ages, it is specially abundant in young animals.

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) are cetaceans with homosexual behaviours (Picture from WorldPolicy)

GUPPIES

A research made on guppies (Poecilia reticulata) demonstrated that the lack of females in the environment during a long period of time produce that males prefer other males even when there are females in the environment. Not only this. When males that had been with females during a long period of time are deprived from females for a short time (two weeks) they prefer males instead of females.

Male guppies prefer other males when there is no females in the environment during a long period of time (Picture from GuppyFish).

DRAGONFLIES

Some studies lay bare that there is a high rate of mating between same sex individuals in dragonflies. The reasons could be the lack of individuals of the other sex or that female tricks to avoid sexual advances of males could produce that males look for same sex individuals. One specific example is blue-tailed damselfly (Ischnura elegans), in which 17% of males of wild populations prefer male partners.

17% of male blue-tailed damselfly (Ischnura elegans) prefer other males (Picture: L. B. Tettenborn, Creative Commons).

SOME EXAMPLES MORE

• Studies on wild occidental gull (Larus occidentalis) show that between 10 and 15% of females are homosexual. It has been seen that they show flirting rituals between them and that they set nets together. They only copulate with males to produce fertile eggs, but then go with their initial partner.
• On domestic sheep, 8% of males from a flock prefer other males despite the presence of females. But this could benefit other males because they can present the same genes and pass to next generation. But this also benefits females by doing them more fertile.
• The king of savannah, the lion, also have homosexual behaviours. It has been observed wild male and female lions with this behaviour, include mating.

• In some species of seahorse, homosexual behaviours between females are frequent, more than heterosexual.

CONCLUSION

Homosexual behaviours are no only in humans, but they are more complex in people. The reason that lead to the development of these behaviours in animals are several: lack of females, to stablish harder links… but there are some examples in which the behaviour is permanent. Moreover, it has been seen that this behaviours are not artificial due to the captivity of animals, like humans in prison, but they haven in wild animals too. So, homosexuality happens in many animals and cannot be considered unnatural. In addition, if it is the result of natural forces it cannot be considered immoral. 

REFERENCES

• ABC: Los pingüinos gay de Madrid, a punto de ser padres
• Bagemihl, B (1999). Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 752 pp.
• Bailey, NW & Zuk M (2009). Same-sex sexual behaviour and evolution. Trends Ecol Evol. 24 (8): 439-46 
• BBC: ¿Existen realmente los animales homosexuales? 
• BBC: Penguins flirt with homosexuality 
• BBC: Todos los animales son homosexuales
• Field, K & Waite TA (2004). Absence of female conspecifics induces homosexual behaviour in male guppies. Animal Behaviour, 68, 1381-1389
• Hay una lesbiana en mi sopa: Conoce a Missy y Penélope, las pingüinas lesbianas de Irlanda 
• National Geographic: Damselfly Mating Game Turns Some Males Gay
• Quo: Relaciones homosexuales en el reino animal
• The New York Times: Love that dare not squeak its name
• WayBack Machine: Gay Penguins Resist “Aversion Therapy”
• WorldPolicy: Homosexuality in Marine Mammals 

Bearded vulture: conservation of a unique bird

Last month a bearded vulture was born for the first time in Spain of parents bred in captivity and reintroduced into the wild. The bearded vulture is the only bird in the world that feeds almost exclusively on bones. Like the Iberian lynx, it is one of the emblematic animals of the Iberian Peninsula and it is endangered, so it is subject to various conservation and reintroduction programs. In this article, we encourage you to find out more about the bearded vulture and the spanish conservation projects.

DESCRIPTION

The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) is a diurnal bird of prey popularly included in what is called vultures, scavenger and ghoul birds (they feed on dead animals). However, the bearded vulture is quite different from other vultures:

Adult bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus). (Photo by Jose Luis Ojeda)

 

• It is so highly specialized that 85% of their diet are bones (osteophague) of dead mammals such as wild ungulates (chamois) and domestic cattle (goats, sheep). It can swallow bones up to 25 cm, and if they are too large catches them, rises them to 20-40 m and crashes bones against the rocks into smaller pieces that can swallow. It also uses the same technique to break tortoise shells.

• It is very large, with a wingspan up to 2.8 meters and a weitgh up to 7 kg.

• In general it isn’t noisy: it just whistles if it is excited or during the mating season.

• It hasn’t the typical plucked vulture head. Vultures have a few or no feathers on their heads to maintain an optimum hygiene after putting their head in dead animals. Due to its peculiar diet, the bearded vulture has more feathers on head and neck, with its characteristic “beard” below the peak.

• The plumage is the same for both sexes but changes with age. The typical reddish and yellowish adults plumage is due to their habit of bathing in mud rich in iron oxides, otherwise they will had a white breast.

Plumage phases of the bearded vulture, Adam and Llopis (2003). (Image by © X. Parellada.)

In this video (5 minutes, catalan) you can see bearded vultures in flight, breaking bones, engulfing them, raising a chick in the nest and bathing in mud.

REPRODUCTION

Bearded vultures nests on ledges and natural rock caves in the mountainous and rugged areas where they live. They have stable partner for life from age 7 and the reproductive cycle has different stages:

• Pre-laying (September to November): nest building (covering it with branches, wool, feathers, bones …), defense of territory and sexual activity.
• Incubation (December-February): they lay one or two eggs with a time difference of 6 days. Both sexes participate in the incubation for 53 days.
• Nurturing (March-August): the largest chick kills his brother (fraticidal violence) to ensure survival. Parents provide food and when the chick leaves the nest (June-July), learn from them to find and prepare food until their emancipation.
• Emancipation (January): displacement (thousands of kilometers) and dating back to the land where it was born to breed (philopatric instinct).

Tracking of natural nests with cameras. (Photo: Foundation for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture)

DISTRIBUTION

Subspecies Gypaetus barbatus meridonalis is distributed by the South and East Africa, while Gypaetus barbatus barbatus by North Africa and parts of Eurasia (see map).

In the Iberian Peninsula is found naturally only in the Pyrenees (Catalonia, Aragon and Navarra). Spain is the European country with more breeding couples registered (about 130, 2014 data).

Bearded vulture distribution. In red, areas in which has been reintroduced . (Image by Mario, Wikimedia).

THREATS

Bearded vulture populations are declining. It is ranked globally as“near threatened” in the IUCN Red List and “endangered” in the Spanish Catalogue of Endangered Species. Current threats they face are:

• Death by poisoning (illegal baits, poisoned animal consumption, consumption of remains of lead hunting ammunition –plumbism–).
• Death by electrocution or collisions with power lines and wind turbines of wind farms.
• Poaching
• Habitat loss and decreasing of reproductive efficiency because of the humanization of the medium (urbanisation, adventure sports …)
• Reduction of food (cattle in stables, obligation to bury the corpses …)

Bearded vulture dead by poisoning. (Photo: DARPAMN)

CONSERVATION IN SPAIN

Due to the limited distribution of populations, their low number and difficulty to colonize new territories, in 2014 thirteen autonomous communities signed a protocol for the recovery of vultures in Spain. The most prominent action of this protocol is to strengthen the National Strategy for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture in Spain (started in 2000) and the Programme Captive Breeding (2001), with actions such as the revaluation of rural areas, supplementary feeding and support for traditional farming practices. This strategy also involves the reintroduction in historic areas where the bearded vulture has been extinguished:

• Reintroduction in Picos de Europa: after 70 years extinct, in 2006 two individuals were reintroduced in the National Park, managed by the Foundation for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture, which currently continues to develop projects for the recovery of vultures in Aragón.
• Reintroduction in the National Park of Cazorla, Segura and Las Villas: in this area of Jaen no breeding was registered since the 80s of last century. The Gypaetus Foundation manages the Captive Breeding Center of Cazorla and the Life Project 04NAT/ES/000056 for the reintroduction of bearded vultures in Andalucia by hacking techniques.
  

WHAT IS HACKING?

Hacking or rural upbringing is a technique that involves the release of captive-bred animals in an area that the bird assimilates as its birthplace. If successful, the bearded vulture returns to settle and breed. This technique did not has a conservationist origin, since it was developed by falconers in the Medieval Age. Falconry (hunting with birds of prey) are also currently used for wildlife control at airports or cities.

In falconry hacking consists in lefting in an elevated cage chicks that can feed by themselves. Falconer feeds them without being seen. After a few days they open the cage, using it as a basis for learning to fly. They are still feeding them until they learn to hunt by themselves and leave the cage. The young ones connect the cage as its birthplace so it will always return.

Feeding a chick with a decoy to avoid human contact and make its life possible in the wild. (Photo: Foundation for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture)

The center managed by the Gypaetus Foundation is based on the natural breeding, with minimal human intervention. Parents raise and feed their young from the second week of hatching. To monitor the nests a video surveillance system is used.

Since 2006, 31 bearded vultures have been released from captive breeding and each one is tracked by GPS transmitters. Currently 15 individuals are still sending signals (9 were killed and 7 stopped working). As said in the introduction, the good news is that last month was born the first chick result of released individuals (Tono and Blimunda) by hacking technique.

For more information, check out this documentary (in spanish) about the bearded vulture and its conservation (El bosque protector. Fauna amenazada, El Quebrantahuesos, 29 minutes).

REFERENCES

• Fundación Gypaetus
• Fundación para la Conservación del Quebrantahuesos
• Grup d’Estudi i Protecció del trencalòs
• Enciclopedia virtual de los vertebrados españoles (MNCN)
• Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente
• La cetrería y conservación de rapaces
• Cover image by jayhem