The (a)sexual life of insects

Most of insects are dioecious, reproduce sexually by mating and lay eggs. However, as a group they have developed many other reproductive strategies.

Discover them through this article!

Types of reproduction

Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves the participation of specialized sexual cells or gametes originated in the sexual organs by meiosis. It is the most common type of reproduction among arthropods and insects.

1. Amphygony

In amphygony, two types of gametes are generated, which lead to the formation of the embryo once they fuse. Most of amphygonic insects are unisexual or dioecious, so each organism generates only one type of gamete. In fact, only a few cases in which a single organism generates more than one type of gamete (hermaphroditism) are currently known; i. e. Icerya purchasi (Hemiptera), Perla marginata (Plecoptera) and several species of the family Termitoxenidae (Diptera).

Icerya purchasi (left; picture property of Vijay Cavale, CC 3.0) and Perla marginata (right; picture property of gailhampshire en Flickr, CC 2.0).

Finding mate and courtship

In dioecious organisms, the fusion of the gametes takes place once they find a mate. Insects develop diverse and complex strategies to find a proper mate: emission of pheromones, light, sounds and vibrations, development of an attractive coloration pattern, amongst others (of which we talked widely in this post about insects’ communication).

Once they get a mate, courtship usually takes place; however, only successful courtships end in copulation. Courtship behavior and strategies include the performance of nuptial dances, gifts (i. e. food, as occurs in some scorpionflies (Mecoptera)) or the formation of swarms (nuptial flights, as in Hymenoptera), amongst others. In some cases, females will not mate with the male if he does not possess a wide territory or a suitable food source.

In the following video, we can enjoy the honeybee nuptial flight:

Fertilization

The fertilization or syngamy is the process through which the gametes fuse to form the embryo. This process takes place both in dioecious and hermaphrodite organisms.

• Internal fertilization

Following with the dioecious organisms, the most frequent mechanism among “modern” insects to guarantee gametes meeting is mating (internal fertilization). When mating, males usually transmit his gametes (spermatozoa) directly to the female body, inside which male gametes meet with the female ones (ovules).

Grasshoppers of the species Romalea microptera from the United States, mating. Picture property of http://www.birdphotos.com, CC 3.0.

• External fertilization

In some insects and related groups, fertilization does not need a direct contact of male and female sexual organs (external fertilization). In this case, males produce a spermatophore, a packet or capsule containing sperm, manufactured by the accessory glands of the male reproductive system; it is usually covered by a lipoprotein film that prevents it from dehydration. Usually, the spermatophore is considered an intermediate step between aquatic and terrestrial reproduction.

Spermatophore is produced by hexapod related groups, such as Myriapoda (millipedes, centipedes); also, by basal hexapods, like Collembola, Diplura and Protura; basal insects, such as Archaeognatha and Zygentoma (bristletails and silverfishes); and some groups of “modern” insects, like Orthoptera, Psocoptera, Coleoptera, Neuroptera, Mecoptera and some Hymenoptera. Sometimes, the male produces a spermatophore and leaves it over a surface, waiting the female to take it (as in Collembola); in other groups, the male offers it directly to the female as a nuptial gift, or leads the female where it has been deposited (Zygentoma and Archaeognatha).

Sminthurus viridis (Collembola); behind, the spermatophore. Modified picture; original picture property of Gilles San Martin on Flickr, CC 2.0.

Orthoptera (female) grabbing the spermatophore laid by a male. Modified picture; original picture property of Sandrine Rouja on Flickr, CC 2.0.

Internal fertilization is considered an evolutive adaptation to terrestrial life. However, there are still some insects that carry on internal reproduction that conserve the genetical information to produce a spermatophore; in these cases, the male introduces the spermatophore inside the female’s body, which serves to her as an additional nutritional source for her eggs.

2. Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is the generation of offspring through unfertilized eggs. Usually, parthenogenesis is classified among asexual reproductive strategies; however, it is more like a special type of sexual reproduction since female gametes generated by meiosis are involved in the process.

Parthenogenesis can be:

• Accidental: occasionally, an unfertilized egg gives birth to a larva; i. e. Bombyx mori (silkworm butterfly).
• Facultative: while some eggs are fertilized, others not.
• Obligated: eggs only develop if they are unfertilized. It occurs in many species with alternant parthenogenetic and amphygonic generations.

Silkworm butterfly (Bombyx mori). Occasionally, some of its unfertilized eggs give birth to a larva. Picture property of Nikita on Flickr, CC 2.0.

Moreover, depending on the chromosomic number of the ovule, parthenogenesis can be:

• Haploid (n) or arrhenotoky: unfertilized eggs (n) generate males and fertilized eggs (2n), females. It takes place in bees and other Hymenoptera, in some Coleoptera and Zygentoma, and it is always facultative. Sex determination at birth is a key process in the evolutive history of colonial structures in social insects.

In honeybees, fertilized eggs give birth to females (workers or queen depending on the diet they are given during the larval stages) and unfertilized eggs, to males. Pictures by Alex Wild and figure by Ashley Mortensen (web of the University of Florida).

 

• Diploid (2n) or thelytoky: unfertilized eggs (2n) always give birth to females with the same genetic number as the progenitor female (clones). It takes place in aphids (Aphididae, Hemiptera), cockroaches, scale insects (Coccoidea, Hemiptera) and in some curculionid beetles; it tends to be an obligated parthenogensis. This type of parthenogenesis has the potentiality to generate hundreds of descendants in a short lapse as a detriment to the genetical variability. In aphids, parthenogenetic generations alternated with amphigonic generations allow them to undergo demographical explosions at specific times.

Aphis nerii (aphids). Picture property of Andrew C, CC 2.0.

Sometimes, parthenogenesis occurs in immature stages (larval or pupal). In the pedogensis or paedogensis, immature forms can generate offspring by parthenogenesis; it takes place in gall midges (Diptera) and in a species of beetle, Macromalthus debilis, amongst others. It must not be confused with neoteny, in which a larva develops traits and reproductive structures typical of an adult (as occurs in some scale bugs).

Asexual reproduction

In the asexual reproduction, the generation of offspring occurs without the participation of any type of gamete.

It is very uncommon in insects, being represented only by a single and odd strategy called polyembryony. Polyembryony is the phenomenon of two or more embryos developing from a single fertilized egg by scission. Even though it takes place an initial fertilization, offspring is generated asexually. It occurs just in a few species of gall midges and in a few chalcidid hymenopterans (parasitoids), through which they undergo population explosions.

Offspring generation

There exist different strategies through which insects generate their offspring:

Oviparity

Oviparous insects lay eggs. It is the most common reproductive strategy.

Praying mantis lay or ootheca (left; picture property of Scot Nelson on Flickr, CC 2.0) and lay of the butterfly Pieris brassicae (right; picture property of Walter Baxter, CC 2.0).

Ovoviviparity

Fertilized eggs are incubated inside the reproductive ducts of the female. It happens in some cockroaches, aphids, scale bugs and flies (Muscidae, Calliphoridae and Tachinidae), in some beetles and trips (Thysanoptera). The eggs hatch immediately before or after being laid.

Viviparity

Females give birth to larvae. There exist different types of viviparity in insects:

• Pseudoplacental viviparity: female develops eggs containing little or no yolk, so she must nourish them through a placental-like tissue. It occurs in many aphids and Dermaptera, in some Psocoptera and in Polyctenidae (Hemiptera).

In this video of Neil Bromhall, we can see a group of aphids giving birth:

• Hemocelous viviparity: embryos develop freely inside the female’s hemolymph (the internal liquid of insects, similar to blood), from which they obtain nutrients by osmosis. It occurs only in Strepsiptera and in gall midges. In some gall midges, larvae feed on their progenitor, which is also a larva (extreme case of larval pedogenesis).

• Adenotrophic viviparity: larvae are underdeveloped, so they must keep feeding on liquids excreted by accessory glands located on females’ reproductive ducts (‘mammary glands’). Once they reach the optimal size, larvae pupate immediately after being laid. This type of viviparity takes place in flies of the families Glossinidae (tsetse fly), Hippoboscidae (horse or dove flies), Nycteribidae and Streblidae (bat flies).

In this video of Geoffrey M. Attardo (AAAS/Science), we can see a tsetse fly giving birth to its larva:

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Who said that the (a)sexual life of insects was simple? Do you know any curious data? Leave your comments below!

References

• Montés, F. J. 2013. El universo de los insectos. Mundi-Prensa Libros.
• “Reproductive System” and “Survival Strategies” in General Entomology. NC State University web.
• http://www.entomologa.ru/
• Entomology: Internal Anatonomy/Physiology: Reproduction. School of Boological Sciences. University of Sydney.

Main picture property of Irene Lobato Vila (the owner of this post).

The nautilus: unusual cephalopods

Nautilus are, probably, one of the least known cephalopods, because their mates the squids, the cuttlefishes and the octopuses are present in fish markets and supermarkets and because they can be seen easily diving or snorkelling. Here, we will focus on their biology and some curiosities.  

INTRODUCTION: THE CEPHALOPODS

Nautilus are a group of marine animals that are included in the Cephalopoda class, which, together with the bivalvia (clams, mussels…), gastropoda (snails, nudibranchs…) and other less-known groups, constitute the molluscs, with about 90,000 extant species (and other 70,000 fossil species). Cephalopods are marine and predator animals. Instead of having the typical foot of the molluscs, they have transformed it into a funnel that expels the water of the body (and, therefore, they can travel for the water by propulsion) and in a crown of arms. Cephalopods have male and female individuals. To reproduce, males introduce a capsule containing espermatozoa (spermatophore) inside the body of the female using a modified arm called hectocotylus.

THE NAUTILUS

The nautilus, or rather nautiloidea, are a subclass of cephalopods characterized by the presence of a coiled, pearly, external shell, which is punctuated with chambers, as a result of their growth. These chambers are connected by a tube tissue called siphuncle, which permit the regulation of the buoyancy of the animal by the entrance or the release of water and liquid.

Individual of the genus Nautilus (Picture: Servando Gion).

Their body, placed in the outermost chamber with the body attached by muscles, present 47 pairs of tentacles, which lack suckers (but they produce adhesive substances), which take part in feeding and present several sense organs. Four of this tentacles, in the male are transformed into copulatory organs. The nervous system is diffused and they present a pair of eyes, which are relatively simple compared with other cephalopods. Like other cephalopods, the funnel permits to travel by propulsion. In case of threat, they can hide inside the shell thanks to the hood. For more anatomical details, watch the picture.

Anatomy of a nautiloid (Picture: Suggest Key Word).

They are nocturnal animals, which feed on deep-water crustaceans and fishes. They live in the tropical region of the Indian and Pacific oceans, close to the bottom, from near the surface to about 500 m depth.

Despite they were abundant in the past, during the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic, nowadays there are just two genera,  Nautilus (with 4 species) and Allonautilus (with 2 species). To identify them, we have to focus on the size of umbilicus, the central part of the shell (outside view): while in Nautilus is small, so that measures between 5 and 16% of the shell; in Allonautilus is big, so that measures the 20% of the shell. Other intern traits, like gills and the reproductive system, let their differentiation. Despite there are differences between the species, they measure about 23 cm of diameter and weigh about 1,5 kg.

Nautilus pompilius (left) and Allonautilus scrobiculatus (right) (Picture: Softpedia)

It is difficult to observe these animals. In fact, an Allonautilus scrobiculatus has been recently spotted after 30-year absence.

REFERENCES

• Brusca & Brusca (2005). Invertebrados. Ed. McGraw Hill (2 ed).
• Hickman, Roberts, Larson, l’Anson & Eisenhour (2006). Principios integrales de Zoología. Ed. McGraw Hill (13 ed)
• Jereb, P.; Roper, C.F.E. (eds). Cephalopods of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopod species known to date. Volume 1. Chambered nautiluses and sepioids (Nautilidae, Sepiidae, Sepiolidae, Sepiadariidae, Idiosepiidae and Spirulidae). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 4, Vol. 1. Rome, FAO. 2005. 262p.
• Malacologia.es: Biología de los moluscos

Frogs, toads and newts: the last amphibians

With about 7000 living species, amphibians currently occupy almost all the habitats on Earth. While in the last entry we explained the origin of the first tetrapods and how those gave rise to the different groups of primitive amphibians, in this entry we will explain in more detail the characteristics of current amphibians, the so-called lissamphibians.

AMPHIBIANS AND LISSAMPHIBIANS

The term “Lissamphibia” (“smooth amphibian”) is used to name current amphibians and it’s useful to tell them apart from the rest of fossil amphibians, while the term Amphibia (“double life” referring to the aquatic larval stage of most species), is used to name all tetrapods except the amniotes (reptiles, birds and mammals).

Most authors consider lissamphibians a monophyletic group (a group which includes all the descendants of a common ancestor) which includes the different groups of modern amphibians. The main characteristics of this group are:

Dermal characteristics

• Smooth, scaleless, permeable skin that allows gas exchange (both pulmonary and cutaneous respiration) and the absorption of water (most amphibians usually do not need to drink water). This makes them susceptible to skin infections like the one from the Batrachocytrium dendrobatidis fungus.

Section through frog skin by Jon Houseman. A: Mucous gland, B: Chromophore, C: Granular poison gland, D: Connective tissue, E: Stratum corneum, F: Transition zone, G: Epidermis, and H: Dermis.

• Two types of skin glands: mucous (the majority, to maintain humidity) and granular (less numerous, secrete toxins of different intensity).

Skeletal characteristics

• Pedicellate and bicuspid teeth.

Photo of pedicellate teeth, in which the crown and base are made of dentine and are separated by a narrow layer of uncalcified dentine.

• A pair of occipital condyles.
• Short, stiff ribs not encircling the body.
• Four digits on the front limbs and five digits on the hind limbs.

Skeleton of giant salamander in which we can see some of the characteristics of lissamphibians. Photo by Graham Smith.

Auditory characteristics

• Papilla amphibiorum, a group of specialized cells in the inner ear which allow them to hear low frequency sounds.
• Stapes-operculum complex which are in contact with the auditory capsule, improve reception of aerial and seismic waves.

Other characteristics

• Fat bodies associated with gonads.
• Presence of green rods in the visual cells (these allow the perception of more colours).
• Presence of a muscle elevator of the eye (called levator bulbi).
• Forced-pump ventilation system (their short ribs do not allow pulmonary ventilation, so they pump the air through their mouth).

Explicative diagram about buccal ventilation in lissamphibians, by Mokele.

TAXONOMY AND EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES

Nowadays only three living amphibian orders persist: the order Salientia or Anura (which includes frogs and toads), the order Caudata or Urodela (salamanders and newts) and the order Gymnophiona or Apoda (caecilians). The second name of each order refers to the current species and their recent ancestors, while the first name refers to the whole order since the separation of each order.

There are two hypotheses regarding the relationships between the three orders. The most accepted both by anatomic and molecular analyses is that Salientia and Caudata are grouped together into the clade Batrachia, while the other one is that Caudata and Gymnophiona together form the clade Procera.

Two hypothetical evolutionary trees by Marcello Ruta & Michael I. Coates (2007), showing the Batrachia and Procera hypotheses on the relationships between Salientia (S), Caudata (C) and Gymnophiona (G).

Currently there are three groups of hypotheses of the origin of lissamphibians: the temnospondyl hypotheses, the lepospondyl hypotheses and the polyphyletic hypotheses.

Temnospondyls are the main candidates to be the ancestors of lissamphibians, as they share many characteristics, such as the presence of pedicellated, bicuspid teeth, and short, stiff ribs. Authors defending these theories say that lissamphibians suffered during their evolution a process known as paedomorphosis (retention during the development of juvenile characteristics), this way explaining why temnospondyls reached such large sizes while lissamphibians are much smaller and usually have lighter and less ossified cranial structures.

Drawings from Marcello Ruta & Michael I. Coates (2007) of skeletons belonging to Celteden ibericus (left, a lissamphibian) and Apateon pedestris (right, a temnospondyl) to show similitudes in skeletal structure.

Hypotheses regarding a lepospondyl origin for lissamphibians do not have such a strong support as the temnospondyl hypotheses. However, recently some statistical studies combining anatomic and molecular data have given some support to these hypotheses.

Nevertheless, there is a third group of hypotheses we must consider, the ones that say that lissamphibians are a polyphyletic group (with different origins for the different orders). According to one of these theories, frogs and salamanders (clade Batrachia) would have a temnospondyl origin, while caecilians (order Gymnophiona or Apoda) would have originated from lepospondyl ancestors, many of which had already suffered a limb reduction process.

 Modified outline of the three different hypotheses regarding the origins of the lissamphibians; 1. Lepospondyl origin, 2. Temnospondyl origin, 3. Polyphyletic origin.

Still, most authors support a monophyletic and temnospondyl origin for lissamphibians, but alternative hypotheses shouldn’t be discarded.

SALIENTIA OR ANURA

With up to 4750 species, frogs and toads form the most diverse lissamphibian order. The first known Salientia is Triadobatrachus, which, despite having a tail, already presented some typical characteristics of modern frogs, such as a short spine with few vertebras and the hind limbs longer than the front limbs.

Interpretation by Pavel Riha, of the ancient Salientia, Triadobatrachus massinoti.

The anatomy of modern anurans is unique among the animal kingdom. Their skeleton seems totally dedicated to allow these animals to jump (even though many species move simply by walking). Some of their characteristics are:

• A short and stiff trunk (less than 12 vertebras), an especially long pelvic girdle and the vertebras of their posterior end (that in other amphibians form the tail) are reduced and fused forming the urostyle.
• Long hind limbs, with the tibia and fibula fused together (to aid in impulse during jumping) and short and strong front limbs (to resist the impact on the landing).

Photo of a pig frog (Rana grylio), a typical american anuran.

Also, of all current amphibians frogs are the ones with the most developed hearing apparatus and vocal organ. Males, usually present specialized structures to amplify sound during the mating season.

Red eyed tree frog (Litoria chloris) showing the vocal sac, used to amplify the sound of its calls.

Size in anurans varies from 3 kg in weight and 35 centimetres in length of the goliath frog (Conraua goliath) to the 7, 7 millimeters long recently discovered Paedophryne amanuensis, currently the smallest known vertebrate.

Photo from Rittmeyer EN, Allison A, Gründler MC, Thompson DK, Austin CC (2012)  of Paedophryne amanuensis, the smallest known vertebrate in the world on a US dime.

With such a diversity, vital strategies of anurans vary greatly and it’s difficult to generalize on their reproductive biology, even though most show indirect development (born as tadpoles and passing through a metamorphosis process) and they mate and lay their eggs in an aquatic medium.

Tadpoles of common toad (Bufo bufo) from northern Germany by Christian Fischer.

URODELA OR CAUDATA

The urodeles or caudates are the order of lissamphibians which externally most resemble primitive amphibians. This group includes salamanders and newts, most of which have a long body, a well-developed tail and four relatively short legs. Most urodeles are terrestrial and are distributed mainly in the northern hemisphere, with a few species inhabiting the tropics.

Photo of an eastern tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) from the House of Sciences, Corunna - Spain. Taken by Carla Isabel Ribeiro.

Most species present internal fertilization and are oviparous. Most also present indirect development (larvae, metamorphosis, adult), and the larvae usually resemble miniaturized adults with external, ramified gills. Various groups of salamanders suffer neoteny phenomenon, in which individuals, even though sexually developing into adults, externally keep larval characteristics.

Young and very large larvae of near eastern fire salamander (Salamandra infraimmaculata), Ein Kamon, Israel. Photo by Ab-Schetui.

Currently, urodeles are classified into three suborders: the Sirenoidea, the Cryptobranchoidea and the Salamandroidea. Sirenoideans are urodeles with both specialized and primitive characteristics, such as the loss of hind limbs and the presence of external gills. Cryptobranchoideans are large primitive salamanders (up to 160 centimetres) which present external fertilization, while salamandroideans are the most numerous group of urodeles (with more than 500 species) and the most diverse, with most species being terrestrial and having internal fertilization using packs of sperm called spermatophores.

Photo of a northern dwarf siren (Pseudobranchus striatus) a sirenoidean from the United States.

GYMNOPHIONA OR APODA

The most ancient known member of the order Gymnophiona is Eocaecilia micropodia, an amphibian about 15 centimetres long with a considerably long body, a short tail and really small limbs.

Restoration by Nobu Tamura of Eocaecilia micropodia an ancient Gymnophiona from the early Jurassic.

Current caecilians (order Apoda) have completely lost any trace of limbs, girdles or tail, due to their adaptation to a subterranean lifestyle. That’s why they also suffered a process of cranial hardening and their eyes are extremely reduced. They also present a series of segmentary rings all along their bodies, which make them look somewhat like earthworms.

Yellow-striped caecilian (Ichthyophis kohtaoensis) from Thailand, by Kerry Matz.

There are currently about 200 species of caecilians divided into 10 families. Their size varies from about 7 centimetres in the species Idiocranium russelli from Cameroon, to up to 1,5 meters of Caecilia thompsoni from Colombia. They present a pantropical distribution, internal fertilization and a great variation in their development (there are viviparous and oviparous species and some which endure metamorphosis while some have direct development).

Photo of Gymnopis multiplicata an american caecilian. Photo by Teague O'Mara.

REFERENCES

The following sources have been consulted in the elaboration of this entry:

• Cover photo: Hagerty Ryan.
• Halliday & Adler (2007). La gran enciclopedia de los Anfibios y Reptiles. Editorial Libsa.
• http://www.livescience.com/5529-land-creatures-wild-appearances.html
• http://www.tandfonline.com.sci-hub.org/doi/abs/10.1017/S1477201906002008
• http://www.nature.com.sci-hub.org/nature/journal/v453/n7194/abs/nature06865.html
• https://quizlet.com/7138074/amphibian-natural-history-flash-cards/
• http://vertebrates.voices.wooster.edu/sample-page/
• http://www.usfca.edu/fac-staff/dever/tetra_evo12.pdf
• http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3350690/

 

Maratus sp.: The spider that wants to be a peacock

If I told you that there exists a 5 millimeters Australian peacock, would you believe me? Although we can find a large number of incredible animals in this country, scientists haven’t yet discovered such a small bird. However, we can find a small peacock-like animals: the peacock spiders (Maratus sp. Salticidae Family, also known as jumping spiders), whose ‘abdomen’ or opisthosoma (the posterior part of the body in some arthropods, including arachnids) have a flap-like extensions that they can unfold to the sides of its body as real peacocks do.

The last month we introduce you these organisms at our different websites (Facebook and Twitter). Through this article, you will learn its most relevant characteristics and you’ll find out the hidden function of its drop down opisthosoma.

JUMPING SPIDERS

Peacock spiders are a part of Salticidae family, whose members are also known as ‘jumping spiders’. This family has up to 5000 species (probably, they form the largest and diverse group of spiders known nowadays), and they’re located all over the world (they can be found even at the top of Mount Everest; this is the case of Euophrys omnisuperstes). Even so, most of them inhabit tropical forests.

¿HOW CAN WE DISTINGISH THEM FROM OTHER SPIDERS?

MAIN TRAITS

Usually, spiders from Salticidae family get to be a size of few millimeters as adults (normally they don’t exceed 10mm long). From an anatomical point of view, the members of this group are characterized by its two big, simple front eyes flanked by two smaller ones, plus four eyes more located over them. The size and the position of these eyes give them an excellent vision in comparison with other spiders, and even compared to other group of arthropods its vision is extraordinary.

Look at these big eyes! Can you resist them?

Specimen of Paraphidippus auranticus (Picture by Thomas Shahan (c)).

Besides its excellent vision, these organisms have the ability to cover a distance of 50 times its length in one jump, because of what they received the nickname ’jumping’. Thus, their ability to travel long distances in just one leap and their extraordinary vision are the main traits that make these spiders being excellent predators: they hunt by stalking their prey without making spider webs or silk traps. Moreover, some of their legs tend to be longer than the others, letting them to catch preys way better.

Jumping spider predating a specimen of Diaea evanida or pink flower spider (Picture by James Niland on Flickr, Creative Commons).

Spiders of this family usually present a noticeable sexual dimorphism (that is, remarkable physiognomic differences between males and females). Jumping spider males have bigger oral appendixes (or pedipalps) than females, which they use during mating dance and copulation as much for attracting the attention of females as for giving females their spermatophore (capsule or mass containing spermatozoa) during mating.

Sitticus fasciger male (with dark big pedipalps) (Picture by sankax on Flickr, Creative Commons).

Sitticus fasciger female (Picture by sankax on Fickr, Creative Commons).

In addition to these developed pedipalps, males of some species of jumping spiders have a colorful, and even iridescent, opisthosoma (the posterior part of the body in some arthropods, including arachnids). Some of them even have an opisthosoma that can reflect UV radiations which are detected by females thanks to their extraordinary vision (as some studies suggest). In contrast, females use to be more cryptic or darker colored than males (but not always).

Male (right) and female (left) of Maratus mungaich. Male has a blue and red colored ‘abdomen’ or opisthosoma (Picture by Jurgen Otto on Flicker, Creative Commons).

The flashy opisthosoma of males attracts the attention of females, and this is complemented with mating dances composed by different dance moves: they vibrate their opisthosoma and their pedipalps or move their anterior legs, they move from one side to the other, etc. Usually, these mating dances tend to be very complex.

NOW, JUST AS A MATTER OF INTEREST…

There exist some jumping spider genera that mimic ants. This phenomenon is known as ‘myrmecomorphia’, term used to describe the fact that some animal imitate ants or also the organisms that accomplish the mimic (‘myrmecomorph’).

Some of the most famous species resembling to ants are inside the Myrmarachne genus.

Specimen of Myrmarachne sp. (Picture by Jean and Fred on Flickr, Creative Commons).

With this example, and what has been explained above, it becomes clear that the Salticidae family is a very diverse group at various levels.

MINIATURE PEACOCKS: THE PEACOCK SPIDERS

At the end of XIX century, the reverend and zoologist Octavius Pickard-Cambridge, who loved spiders, discovered a surprising organism: a small spider just over 5mm whose males have a flamboyant opistosoma.

Maratus volans male (Foto de Jurgen Otto a Flickr, Creative Commons).

According to this definition, there seems not be any difference between jumping spiders and these new organisms. But the true is that these miniature spiders have an ace in the hole: the opisthosoma of males has lateral and flexible flap-like extensions that they can unfold like wings to the sides of their bodies and over their prosoma (that is, the anterior part of the body in arachnids). Finally, when its function ends they can be folded again.

‘Abdomen’ or opisthosoma of a Maratus mungiach male (1,2,3-Different degrees of expansion of the lateral flaps) (Otto and Hill, 2011).

So, due to its colored and expansible opisthosoma this new spider was named ‘peacock spider’.

Probably, the most famous peacock spider is Maratus volans, one of the first species called as ‘peacock spider’. To date there have been identified up to 30 species of peacock spiders, and each presents subtle variations in the patterns of its opisthosoma. All of them are included in Maratus genus, whose members (but M. furvus) are endemic to Australia. Moreover, Jurgen Otto and David Hill have recently identified two new species of the Maratus genus in Queensland: Maratus jactatus and Maratus sceletus.

Maratus amabilis male (Picture by Jurgen Otto on Flickr, Creative Commons).

Maratus harrisi male (Picture by Jurgen Otto on Flickr, Creative Commons).

Maratus volans male (Picture by Jurgen Otto on Flickr, Creative Commons).

Although in the beginning it was been suggested that these flap-like expansions let them fly (because of what they were called ‘flying peacock spiders’ at first place), later studies revealed that these expansions have a more ‘romantic’ function. Let’s discover it in the next section.

A SURPRISING COURTSHIP

As well as male peacock do when they see a female, these Australian spiders use their opisthosoma in order to impress the females during courtship (that usually takes place on september-november).

Throughout this process, males perform a mating dance which is a little different from the ones performed by other jumping spiders: at the first place, they make vibrate their opisthosoma and their pedipalps; then, they raise their third pair of legs and shake them vigorously in order to attract nearby females; finally, they raise their opisthosoma and unfold the lateral flap-like extensions showing its colored pattern. Then, they make vibrate their opisthosoma to show its iridescence and they begin to move from one side to the other while shaking their legs.

But, as everybody knows, an image is better that any word, so I invite you to see the next video (made by Jürgen Otto) where you can see a male of Maratus volans dancing for his ladies:

As you have been able to appreciate while reading this article, two animals that belong to a not related groups (peacocks and spiders) have developed a quite similar courtship strategy. And it seems to yield good results in both cases. Nature is surprising us again!

 

REFERENCES

• Lim M.L.M, Li D. (2005). Extreme ultraviolet sexual dimorphism in jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 89: 397–406.
• Otto J.C., Hill D.E. (2015). Two new peacock spiders of the calcitrans group from southern Queensland (Araneae: Salticidae: Euophryinae: Maratus). Peckhamia 121.1: 1-34.
• Otto J.C., Hill D.E. (2014). Spiders of the mungaich group from Western Australia (Araneae: Salticidae: Euophryinae: Maratus), with one new species from Cape Arid. Peckhamia 112.1: 1-35.ç
• Otto J.C., Hill D.E. (2011). An illustrated review of the known peacock spiders of the genus Maratus from Australia, with description of a new species (Araneae: Salticidae: Euophryinae).
• Salticidae, Jumping spiders.
• Two New Species of Peacock Spiders Discovered in Australia. Sci-knews.com.
• The extraordinary courtship dance of Australia’s peacock spider. The Guardian.

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