Why are sea turtles threatened?

Last week, we saw with detail how is the life of a sea turtle. Did you miss it? So, click here to read it! This week, I am still talking about his amazing animals, but I am focusing on the dangers that are threatening them, both natural or anthropic, and which actions we can do to save them. 

NATURAL THREATS 

Sea turtles are threaten by natural and anthropic dangers. Natural threats include egg loss due to the inundation or erosion of the beach, predation at all life stages, extreme temperatures and disease.

Egg loss

High tides and storms can produce the egg loss for several reasons: the drowning of the eggs, the beach erosion or accretion or nests are washed away. Moreover, there are some animals that feed on sea turtle eggs.

There are several reasons that explain the egg loss (Picture: PaddleAndPath).

Predation on turtles

Despite little turtles usually leave the nest at night, the risk of being eaten by a predator is not zero, since they are part of the diet of raccoons, birds, crabs, sharks and other fishes. Young and adult turtles are also feed by some animals, like sharks and other big fishes, but the impact is not as big as in the first stages. Read the post of the last week if you want to know how many turtles die of old age for each 10.000 eggs. The number will shock you!

Crabs eat the hatching turtles (Picture: Gnaraloo Turtle Conservation Program, Creative Commons).

Hypothermia

Below 8º to 10ºC, turtles become lethargic and buoyant until they float at the surface (this condition is known as cold-stunning). At temperatures below 5º to 6ºC death rate can be important.

Diseases

Parasitic infections are common in sea turtles. Up to 30% of the loggerhead sea turtles in the Atlantic ocean have trematodes that infect their cardiovascular system. These infections, at the same time, reduce their immunological defences and then may be infected by bacteria (like Salmonella or E. coli).  Dinoflagellate blooms are also a threat for them because of the poisonous content produce health problems.

ANTHROPIC THREATS

Four are the main anthropic threats for marine turtles: egg and turtle poaching, destruction of nesting beaches, pollution and fisheries by-catch. Here, we will see some more.

Poaching

Fortunately, poaching is not present all over the world, but it can be specially important in some countries. Turtles are hunted for their meat and cartilage or for their shells (used in jewellery and like a decoration). Egg collection is also present.

Sea turtles confiscated by Philippine Police (Picture: Mongabay).

Sale of sea turtle eggs (Picture: OceanCare).

Destruction of nesting beaches

The building of infrastructures to protect ocean front property produce that females cannot access to nesting beaches and, moreover, produce their erosion. Beach nourishment to fight against beach erosion also affect them because the new beach buries the nests, offshore dredging kills them, beaches may become too compacted for nesting and steep and sand can have different properties (what may reduce, for example, gas diffusion). Tourism also affect them.

Pollution and garbage

It is not completely known if the pollutants, such as fertilizers and pesticides, have a direct impact on sea turtles, but among indirect effects there are the habitat degradation, considering that excess nutrients increase harmful algal blooms.

Garbage is also a problem. Turtles with plastic in the stomach have been found because they confuse plastic bags with jellyfishes, what block intestines and produce their death. Not only are plastics ingested, but also do they become entangled in debris like nets, fishing line or other plastic items. This produces a growth deformation.

The ingestion of plastic blocks their intestines and produce death (Picture: Fethiyetimes).

Fishing by-catch

Sea turtles are also threaten by fishing by-catch.

Drift fishing, although is forbidden in Spain, are still used and every year, each boat produce the death of a hundred animals.

The longline fishing has an important impact. In Spanish waters, every year, are captured between 15,000 and 20,000 individuals. Despite they return alive to the ocean, they have a hook in the mouth and produce post release death for the wounds. Here you can read a review of the methods to reduce by-catch on loggerhead sea turtle in longline fishing. 

Longline fishing captures between 15,000 and 20,000 individuals in Spanish waters each year (Picture: Phys).

Mortality in trawling depends on trawl times: mortality increased from 0% with times less than 50 minutes to 70% after 90 minutes. This is explained by the breathing capacity of the animals.

Global change

Ocean acidification due to the continued release of carbon dioxide may have an important impact on sea turtle populations because the quality of the food will probably reduce.  The sea level rise will have a negative impact on sea turtles because endanger the existence of beaches. Moreover, the increase in the temperatures will affect the growth and the sex ratio, since sex depends on the temperature in reptiles: below 29ºC prevail males and above, females.

HOW CAN WE HELP THEM?

• Avoid any activity or behaviour that can annoy sea turtles. In the case of feeling annoyed, you will observe that they try to leave the area, they do a fast diving and they do abrupt swimming movements.
• Reduce the speed of the ship if you see any element that could be a sea turtle. In the case of being a turtle, avoid any manoeuvre that can endanger them.
• Pick up fishing gear or garbage present in the water.
• In the case of the animal being in danger, first, call the emergency phone of your country. In the case of Spain, call 112. However, there are some actions that you can do while vets arrive:
  • Turtle with a broken shell or open injuries: cover the injuries with a wet rag with iodine (never in the eyes, ears and nose).
  • Drowned turtle: maintain the animal for 5 minutes with the ventral part face up and with the body inclined (head downwards), moving its fins.
  • Turtle with plastics in the mouth: remove the plastic taking care and call the emergency number.
  • Dead turtle: don’t touch the animal and call emergencies.
  • Hooked turtle: don’t stretch the hook and cut the line with 30 cm.
• Inform the proper authority of the location of possible nests. Some clues:
  • Tracks of turtles in the sand of the beach, with a shape of a V, with the nest in the vertex.
  • Depression in the sand, what indicates about the eclosion of eggs.
  • Observation of a turtle doing the lay.
  • Remainder of eggs or hatching animals.

REFERENCES 

• Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía (2014). Varamientos de Especies Marinas Amenazadas. Guías prácticas voluntariado ambiental.
• Gray, J (1997). Marine biodiversity: patterns, threats and conservation needs. Biodiversity and Conservation 6, 153-175
• Hamann, M et al. ‘Climate Change And Marine Turtles’. The Biology Of Sea Turtles. Volume III. Jeanette Wyneken, Kenneth J. Lohmann and John A. Musick. 1st ed. New York: CRC Press, 2013. 353-378. Print.
• Harrould-Kolieb, E. & Savitz, J. (2009). Acidificación: ¿Cómo afecta el CO2 a los océanos? Oceana
• Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. Guía de buenas prácticas en las Zonas Especiales de Conservación de ámbito marino de Canarias. España. http://www.magrama.gob.es/es/costas/temas/proteccion-medio-marino/201311_guia_bbpp_web_tcm7-229984.pdf
• Oceana (2006). Las tortugas marinas en el Mediterráneo. Amenazas y soluciones para la supervivencia. 38 pp.
• Otero, M., Garrabou, J., Vargas, M. 2013. Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas and climate change: A guide to regional monitoring and adaptation opportunities. Malaga, Spain: IUCN. 52 pages.
• Shigenaka, G (2010). Oil and Sea Turtles. Biology, planning and response. NOAA
• Smith, T & Smith R (2007). Ecología. Pearson Educación (6 ed.)
• Velegrakis, A., Hasiotis, T., Monioudi, I., Manoutsoglou, E., Psarros, F., Andreadis, O. and Tziourrou, P., (2013). Evaluation of climate change impacts on the sea-turtle nesting beaches of the National Marine Park of Zakynthos Protected Area. Med-PAN North Project, Final report, 81 pp.

What do insects tell us about the health of our rivers?

Nowadays, concern about the health of inland waters (rivers, lakes, etc.) is growing, mainly due to increased use (and abuse) of these for human consumption. A few years ago, an expansion of the use of biotic indices took place, which allow us to determine the health of aquatic ecosystems; these indices usually use data such as presence, absence or/and abundance of different organisms known as ‘bioindicators’, that is, species that can be used to monitor the health of an environment or ecosystem. Among these organisms, there are a lot of arthropods.

Along this article, I will briefly explain what bioindicators are, the main role of arthropods as bioindicators and also introduce some of the most used bioindication indices to monitor the quality of riverine ecosystems in the Iberian Peninsula.

What is a bioindicator?

The term ‘bioindicator’ is used to refer to those biological processes, species or/and communities of organisms which can be used to assess the quality of an ecosystem and also how this ecosystem evolves over time, which is especially useful when changes take place due to anthropogenic disturbances, such as pollution.

Thus, in accordance with the above, a bioindicator can be:

• A particular species, whose presence/absence or abundance rate informs us of the state of health of a studied ecosystem, or
• A population or a community composed of various organisms which varies functionally or structurally according to the conditions of  environment.

Example: Lecanora conizaeoides lichen is highly resistant to pollution. Its presence on the studied ecosystem, coupled with the disappearance of another lichens, is indicative of high air pollution.

Lecanora conizaeoides (Picture by James Lindsey).

What do we consider a ‘good bioindicator’?

Do all the organisms have the necessary traits to become bioindicator subjects? The answer is no. Even though there is not a bioindicator prototype (because all depends on the studied ecosystem), we can resume here some of the traits that scientists take into account to select good bioindicator organisms:

• They have to respond to disturbances that take place on their ecosystem to a greater or lesser degree. This response should be comparable to that emitted by the rest of the organisms of the same species, and this response also has to be well correlated with the studied environment disturbances.
• Their response have to be representative of all the community or population.
• They must be native of the studied ecosystem and also be ubiquitous (that is, to be present in almost all ecosystems of the same or similar characteristics).
• They have to be abundant (rare species aren’t optimum subjects).
• They must be relatively stable to moderate climate changes (i.e. a storm or a natural temperature change does not affect them more than normal).
• They should be easy to detect and, as possible, they have to be sedentary.
• They have to be well studied, both from an ecological point of view as taxonomic (to know, therefore, their tolerance to environmental disturbances).
• Finally, they should be easy to manipulate and monitor in the laboratory.

The use of bioindicators will be optimized if we use entire communities or populations instead of using a single or a couple species, because this allows us to cover a wide interval of environmental tolerances: from organisms with a narrow tolerance range (that is, stenotopic) and sensitive to pollution, to very tolerant organisms that can survive in very polluted environments.

Thus, we will be able to know if an ecosystem is highly altered if we find only a very tolerant species and none of the considered sensitive species.

Bioindicator animals from inland waters

Nowadays, scientists use a lot of animals as bioindicators: from microorganism and microinvertebrates to terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates (micromammals, birds, fishes, etc.). In inland waters, and especially in the context of studies of riverine water quality, scientists mostly use aquatic macroinvertebrates to assess the quality of these ecosystems. Next, let’s see what a macroinvertebrate is.

What are macroinvertebrates?

The term ‘macroinvertebrate’ does not correspond to any taxonomic classification, but with an artificial concept that includes different aquatic invertebrate organisms.

Generally, is said that macroinvertebrates are organisms that can be trapped by a net with holes about 250μm.

Collecting macroinvertebrates by using a kick seine (Picture by USFWS/Southeast , Creative Commons).

Macroinvertebrates are mainly benthic, that is, animals that inhabit the substrate of aquatic ecosystems at least during some stage of their life cycle (although there are some that swim freely in water column or on its surface).

We can find a lot of macroinvertebrate groups in rivers and lakes, which can be classified in two main groups:

Picture sources: (1) Luis Silva Margareto ©, (2) DPDx Image Library, (3) Oakley Originals, Creative Commons, (4) Ryan Hodnett, Creative Commons, (5) Will Thomas, Creative Commons, (6) Duncan Hull, Creative Commons.

Among these groups, there are both tolerant organisms to environment distrubances (i.e. leeches) and sensitive organisms (i.e. a lot of larvae insects).

Most inland aquatic macroinvertebrates (≃80%) are arthropods (of which I will discuss in the next section), among which there are many insects and, especially, their larvae (which are generally benthic), whose study and observation play an essential role on calculating indices of water quality.

Importance of insects in bioindication

As I’ve said above, about 80% of macroinvertebrates of inland waters are arthropods and, mostly, different orders of insects in its larval or nymphal form. Let’s see some of the most common groups we can find in rivers and lakes:

Trichoptera (or caddisflies)

They are insects closely related to the Lepidoptera order (butterflies and moths). Their aquatic nymphs can build a shelter around their bodies made of substrate materials. We can distinguish them from other aquatic insect larvae because they have a couple of anal filaments provided with strong hoofs. They usually inhabit clear and clean waters with a lot of currents.

Trichoptera nymph (inside its shelter, left) and adult (right). Picture of the nymph by Matt Reinbold (Creative Commons) and picture of the adult by Donald Hobern (Creative Commons).

Ephemeroptera (or mayflies)

One of the most ancient orders of flying insects. Their aquatic nymphs, which usually inhabit rivers, are characterized for having three long anal filaments. Adults, which fly over the water surface, are very fragile and have a short life cycle in comparison with nymphs (the name Ephemeroptera is derived from Greek ‘ephemera’ meaning sort-lived, and ‘ptera’ meaning wings).

Ephemeroptera nymph (left) and adult (right). Picture of the nymph by Keisotyo (Creative Commons) and picture of the adult by Mick Talbot (Creative Commons).

Plecoptera (or stoneflies)

Flying insects very similar to Ephemeroptera order. Like these, they have anal filaments, but they differentiate from them because they have two apical hooks in each leg. They usually inhabit lakes and streams.

Plecoptera nymph (left) and adult (right). Picture of the nymph by Böhringer (Creative Commons) and picture of the adult by gailhampshire (Creative Commons).

Other groups of insects with aquatic larvae or nymphs

Among the most common insects inhabiting rivers and lakes we can also find species of Odonata order (dragonflies and damselflies), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (mosquitoes and flies), etc.

Among all the organisms mentioned above, there are very tolerant species to pollution (i.e. some Diptera larvae; this is the case of some species of Chironomidae family, which are very tolerant to organic and inorganic pollution due to the presence of heavy metals in their environment) and also very sensitive species (i.e. some species of Trichoptera order).

Depending on their tolerance to environment disturbances, scientists group these organisms (plus the rest of macroinvertebrates) into different categories that are assigned a value. This values, at the end, allow us to calculate water quality indices.

Biotic indices for riverine waters

The different pollution tolerance degrees among macroinvertebrates of a community allow us to classify them and to assign them a qualitative value (the bigger the number is, more sensitive are organisms to pollution). Thanks to these values, we can calculate different biotic indices, which are no more than qualitative values assigned to a community in order to classify it according to its quality: the greater the value is, better is the water quality.

One of the most used indices on the assessment of ecological state of rivers from the Iberian Peninsula is the IBMWP index (Iberian Bio-Monitoring Working Party), an adaptation by Alba Tercedor (1988) of the British index BMWP. In rough outlines, the greater the value is, better is the water quality. On this website you will find more details about this index, and also the pre-established values assigned to each macroinvertebrate (available in Spanish only).

In additions, there is also used the IASPT index, a complementary index which is the result of divide the IBMWP value by the number of identified taxa. This index give us information about the dominant community in the studied location. You can see more details on this website (available in Spanish only).

.      .      .

As you probably have seen while reading of this article, macroinvertebrates, and insects especially, play an important role in the study of inland water quality. Furthermore, their presence or absence is extremely important for the rest of the organisms of their ecosystem, because of what we must become aware of the problems deriving from the reduction of their number or diversity.

REFERENCES

• Bioindicadors com a detectors de la contaminació ambiental. Diari Apícola Ecolluita (Associació Col·lectiu Abellaire).
• Bioindicadors. GESNA (Estudis Ambientals S.L.).
• Estudio de determinación de índices bióticos en 87 puntos de los ríos de Navarra (Informe Final, 2005). Ekolur, Asesoría Ambiental.
• Holt, E. A. & Miller, S. W. (2010) Bioindicators: Using Organisms to Measure Environmental Impacts. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):8.
• MEDPACS (MEDiterranian Predictions And Classifictions System).
• Prat N., Ríos B., Acosta R., Rieradevall M. (2009). Los macroinvertebrados como indicadores de calidad de las aguas.
• Protocolo de cálculo del índice IBMWP. Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente (Gobierno de España).
• http://www.cricyt.edu.ar/enciclopedia/terminos/Bioindic.htm
• https://ilbca.wordpress.com/bioindicadores/
• http://xtec.cat/cda-delta/pdf/rv_invertebrats.pdf

Head photography by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Southeast Region.

Oil spill effects on marine environment

Oh the occasion of the accident of the Russian fishing boat called Oleg Naydenov close to Grand Canary (Spain), the article of this week is about the effects of petroleum on marine environment. Here, I am going to talk about the origin of the petroleum in the sea, which are the transformations that suffer and the effects on marine fauna and flora. 

INTRODUCTION

The accident of the Russian fishing boat called Oleg Naydenov off of Grand Canary, which has finished with its sinking, is causing the appearance of oil in an area of 12 square km. The reason is that it sank with more than 1,400 tonnes of oil, 30 of diesel oil and 65 more of lubricant.

ORIGIN OF HYDROCARBONS IN THE SEA

Despite oil tanker accidents have a huge impact in the media, they represent a small portion of the amount of hydrocarbons that get in the sea. In general terms, these are the main sources of petroleum in the sea:

• Industrial discharges and urban dredging: 37%.
• Boat’s operations: 33%.
• Oil tanker accidents: 12%.
• Atmosphere: 9%.
• Natural sources: 7%.
• Exploration and production of hydrocarbons: 2%.

Although this values can vary depending of the sources, in general they represent quite good the proportions. It has been estimated that, each year, are poured into the sea 3,800 millions of litres of hydrocarbon, equivalent to 1,500 Olympic pools.

HYDROCARBON TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE SEA

When hydrocarbons are spilled into the sea (accidentally or deliberately), their features and shape change. This changes are physical, chemical and biological. This are the mechanisms:

1. Evaporation: it allows that certain substances of the hydrocarbons go to the atmosphere, reducing about 40% its volume just in the first day. In any case, the surrounding atmosphere will be flammable.
2. Dispersion: it consists on the fragmentation of the oil patch into small drops. When these drops are small enough, they remain in suspension and they mix with water and favours the biodegradation and sedimentation.

   

   Oil dispersion is positive because it allows the biodegradation (Picture from Ecosfera)

3. Emulsification: consists on the absorption of water so the hydrocarbon’s volume increases between 3 and 4 times. This hampers the oxidation and biodegradation.
4. Solution: depending on the product’s composition, the water temperature and its agitation. Only the more volatile components can be dissolved.
5. Oxidation: the effect of the oxidation can produce a compound that is easier or more difficult to degrade.
6. Sedimentation: consists on the down vertical displacement of the hydrocarbon’s particles. Depending on its density (with respect to water), the size and the agitation of the sea.
7. Biodegradation: consists on the elimination of hydrocarbons by living beings, like bacteria and fungus.

PETROLEUM’S EFFECTS ON MARINE ENVIRONMENT

As we have said in the beginning of the post, the main goal of this is to comment which are the effects of petroleum (and other hydrocarbons) on marine fauna and flora. Let’s start!

The effects of petroleum on fauna are wide due to the high diversity of marine organisms. The main effects on the marine biodiversity are:

1. Direct contamination: petroleum sticks on feathers, fur and scales, what make difficult the thermal isolation, movements and other important functions. As a consequence, this kills fishes, marine mammals and birds.

   

   Marine mammals are effected by petroleum pollution (Picture from Channel Island)

2. Modification of gas exchange: the petroleum sheet reduces the content of oxygen in the water, what produce the dead of the plankton and fishes, what produce the dead of the organisms that feed on them.
3. Alteration of seafloor: when petroleum is placed over the seafloor kills and produce sublethal effects on benthonic flora and fauna.
4. Intoxication: petroleum poisons marine fauna, soaking into its digestive system and its skin and mucosa. The result is, on the one hand, the dead for suffocation and genetic disruptions on fishes, molluscs, marine mammals, reptiles and birds; and, on the other hand, the intoxification of other organisms like humans when they feed on them.

   

   Only a quarter part of the contaminated marine birds achieve the earth, the rest dead (Photo: Marine Photobank, Creative Commons).

5. Increase of the infections: because petroleum produces a reduction of the resistance to infections. This is specially important in birds because when they clean the feathers theirself, they swallow petroleum, so they present sublethal concentrations.
6. Negative effects on fertility, reproduction and propagation of fauna and flora.
7. Modification of the behaviour.
8. Destruction of food sources.
9. Incorporation of cancerous substances on food webs. 
10. Effects on the availability of light: we cannot forget that the petroleum patch in the sea surface produce an important reduction of light in the water column. This causes a reduction or elimination of photosynthesis, essential process for the maintenance of food webs because the algae growth depends on light, which is consumed by herbivorous (and so on) and produce an oxygen input into the water. Moreover, we have to take in consideration that algae communities are shelter for many larvae and youthful fishes.
11. Marine communities alteration: at community level, there is a gradient of vulnerability of oil spills. From less to more vulnerability, the communities are: exposed cliffs, exposed rock platforms, fine sand beaches, middle to big sand beaches, exposed tidal planes, big sand beaches, gravel beaches, protected rocky beaches, protected tidal planes, marshlands and mangroves, subtidal seafloors of sand and gravel, mud subtidal seafloors, batial and abyssal seafloors, infralittoral and circalittoral seafloors and reef corals.

REFERENCES

• Notes of the subject Ecotoxicology and marine pollution of the Master in Oceanography and Marine Environment Management of the University of Barcelona.
• EmerCoast Coast. “Training on marine pollution risks. Environmental risks in the littoral and marine environments”.
• Course”Marine Pollution” from EuroInnova.
• Greenpeace (2012). Environmental impact of petroleum (Brochuere).

Mediterranean Monk Seal: Until when will it survive?

In this post, we will do an approach to Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus), a critically endangered species that, in fact, is the most endangered pinniped species in the world. Here, we are going to do a short historical review and we are going to talk about its natural history, its habitat and distribution, its threats and status and, finally, its conservation. 

INTRODUCTION

Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) is one of the three species included in the genus Monachus (Monk Seals). The other two species are Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus schauinslandi), which is critically endangered, and Caribbean Monk Seal (Monachus tropicalis), which is extinct.

Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) (Photo: Sá, Wild Wonders of Europe)

Mediterranean Monk Seals were hunted for fur, oil and meat since Prehistory. Romans were responsible of an important decline, but thanks to the empire’ fall the animals were able to recover. More recently, the two world wars, the industrial revolution, the explosion of tourism and industrial fishing have produced the reduction and disappearance of the species in some regions.

MEDITERRANEAN MONK SEAL’S NATURAL HISTORY

When they are born, their length is 94 cm and their weight is 15-20 kg. Until weaning (at about 16-17 weeks), growth takes place fast. The pups’ pelt is soft and downy and the coat is black to dark brown, with a white patch in the belly.

Adult individuals have a length of 2.4 m (from nose to tail) and weigh 250-300 kg. Males are only slightly bigger than females. Juveniles and adults have very short hair. While adult males are black with a white patch in the belly, adult females are brown and grey with a lighter belly colouration. In any case, they can present more patches on the throat (males) and back (females).

Female individual of Mediterranean Monk Seal (Photo: Sá, Wild Wonders of Europe)

Male individual of Mediterranean Monk Seal (Photo: Sá, Wild Wonders of Europe)

Males and females reach sexual maturity between 5 and 6 years. After a gestation lasting 9-11 month, one pup is born (generally in autumn).

They feed on fish and cephalopods.

HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION

This species’ habitat is inaccessible caves with underwater entrances. The truth is that in ancient times, they inhabit open beaches of sand and rocks. Mediterranean monk seals can be found in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the east Atlantic Ocean.

Mediterranean Monk Seal habitat (Photo: Sá, Wild Wonders of Europe)

Mediterranean Monk Seal on beach (Photo: Hellio & Van Ingen)

In ancient times, the species’ distribution was bigger than now. While now they just are present only in the northeast Mediterranean and in the northeast Atlantic, long ago they were present in all through the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Atlantic coast of Africa and some Atlantic islands.

Distribution map of Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) (Picture: TheAnimalFiles.com)

STATUS AND THREATS

With just 350-450 individuals (maybe 550), the Mediterranean Monk Seal is one of the world’s most endangered marine mammals and is the most endangered pinniped species and it is described as critically endangered by IUCN.

Mediterranean Monk Seal is critically endangered, according to IUCN (Picture: IUCN).

The main threats against the species are:

• Habitat degeneration and loss by development in the coast. The driving causes to this may be hunting, mass tourism, pleasure boats and diving. The result is that the caves occupied now are not adequate for their survival, so the recovery is only possible if they return to sandy beaches.
• Killing them on purpose by fisherman and fish farm operators because they find it a nuisance that destroys their nets and steals their fish. In Greece, deliberate killing accounts for 43% of the deaths of adult and juvenile animals.

Deliberate killing of a Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus) (Picture: E. Tounta, MOm).

• Accidental entanglement in fishing gear. It is unknown if this has an important impact nowadays, but in the recent past it was and, in fact, it has played a significant role in the elimination of the species from some parts.
• Decreased food availability due to overfishing. Malnourishment; susceptibility towards pathogens; affected growth, reproduction, juvenile survival and mortality rate and dispersion are the possible effects of this.
• Unusual events: disease (like morbillivirus), toxic algae, rockslides, cave collapses or oil spills.
• Pollution, maybe caused by organochlorine compounds used in pesticides.
• Inbreeding depression, that results in reduced fecundity and pup survival. This factor is not a significant threat in the short term, but it can be a future threat because this causes reduced fertility, increased infant mortality and a distorted sex ratio.

CONSERVATION

Since 1970s, conservation measures have been developed, but the improvements are hardly seen. Conservation measures include:

• Development of marine protected areas (MPA) in Madeira, Greece, Turkey and Cabo Blanco. In fact, what is necessary is a network of MPA.
• Orphaned and hurt animals are rescued.
• Educational programs.
• Scientific investigation to identify its habitat areas.
• International coordination of conservation activities.

On the other hand, ex situ conservation measures (like captive breeding and translocation) are not used because the species is so sensitive to human disturbance that it could be another threat.

REFERENCES

• Fauna Iberica: Foca monje
• IUCN Red List: Monachus monachus 
• MarineBio: Mediterranean Monk Seals
• NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources: Mediterranean Monk Seal
• The Monachus Guardian (main source)
• Wildscreen Arkive: Mediterranean Monk Seal

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This publication is under a Creative Commons License:

Oceans: a plastic soup

Seas and oceans of the Earth Planet more and more looks like a plastic soup. Pictures like the next one will be more frequently seen if we don’t stop the plastic pollution. In this post we are talking about the amount of plastics in the oceans, according to the findings recently published in Plos One. 

INTRODUCTION

Plastic pollution is a phenomenon present in all oceans due to the floating capacity and its durability, as some kinds of plastic can remain in the water for 400 years. Thanks to photodegradation (degradation induced by light) and other weathering processes, plastics breaks into smalls pieces and are scattered through the ocean, and finally they arrive to the oceanic gyres, but also they become accumulated on closed bays, gulfs and seas surrounded by important populations.

There are five oceanic gyres: North and South Atlantic, North and South Pacific and Indian. An ocean gyre is a large system of rotative marine currents, related with the rotational movement of the Earth. (NOAA, Creative Commons)

These plastics have a negative effect on the marine environment, affecting the small organisms of the plankton till the big whales, since they feeds on plastic items or they get entangled. An associated problem is that plastic absorbs persistent organic pollutants, and these are transferred along food chains.

WHICH IS THE AMOUNT OF PLASTIC IN THE OCEANS?

According to a recent research, it has been estimated that there are about 5.25 trillions of plastic particles in the oceans, what suppose a weight of about 268,940 tones. The amount of plastic found in this study is just a 0.1% of the total annual production. In addition, on the one hand, the northern hemisphere contains the half of plastic (55.6% of the particles and 56.8% of the weight), being the North Pacific the zone with the biggest accumulation (37.9% and 35.6% respectively). On the other hand, in the southern hemisphere is the Indian Ocean which accumulates more plastic than others. These results show that, in spite of the population density is higher in the coasts of the northern hemisphere, plastics are spread all over the world thanks to currents and wind. An alternative explanation could be that there are unknown pollutant sources.

About 92.4% of the particles are microplastics (between 0.33 and 4.75 mm), coming from bigger ones.

Distribution of plastics in the oceans: small microplastics (0.33-1.00 mm), big microplastics (1.01-4.75 mm), mesoplastics (4.76-200 mm) and macroplastics (>200 mm). The colours express the plastic density (particles/m2). (Eriksen et al. 2014, Creative Commons)

The study show that, amongst macroplastics, the most common pieces were made of foamed polyethylene (see the picture), but buoys in weight.

The investigation determines that there is an important loss of plastics in the sea surface, specially in the northern hemisphere. The processes implicated are: photodegradation with UV, biodegradation, ingestion by organisms, loss of buoyancy, burial in the sea-floor and beaching.

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